BIOLOGY CONCEPTS (FORM THREE)

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Kingdom Plantae, Division Coniferophyta (Conifers)
General and Distinctive Features of the Division Coniferophyta
Explain general and distinctive features of the division coniferophyta
Division Coniferophyta or the conifers belong to Kingdom Plantae. These plants are gymnosperms meaning non-flowering. They are non-flowering but seed bearing plants. They have vascular tissues. They are woody plants, largest being evergreen trees. Few varieties are shrubs
What are the general and distinctive features of the Coniferophyta Division?
General characteristics
They have a secondary growth. Secondary Growth is the result of growth of Lateral Meristems (Vascular Cambium & Cork Cambium).
Most of the members of Coniferophyta live in cool climates where they form evergreen forests. They keep their leaves year-round.
They have a large amount of internodal elongation which allows them to grow faster than the other higher plants.
They are Xeromorphic, a character that survives in the extreme habitats.
The bridge are large trees while a few are shrubs and other small plants.
Most of them have hard barks which protect the inner softwood.
Distinctive characteristics
Conifers are non-flowering but seed producing plants.
They have seeds born in cones shaped structures rather than fruits.
They are gymnosperms which mean naked-seed plants.
The leaves are needle-shaped and have a thick cuticle for protection.
The Structure of Pinus
Describe the structure of pinus
Pines are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees growing 3 - 80 m tall. The bark of bridge is thick and scaly. They have needle like leaves.
Pines are among the most well-known coniferous trees in the world. They thrive in temperate mountainous regions, but can also survive in the northern hemisphere. Pines live relatively long time than other coniferous plants. They may live between 100 and 1,000 years
The Stem: The bark of the bridge is thick, flaking bark. The branches are produced in regular whorls.
Leaves: A cross-section of pine stems with several rings. The center of the stem is called pith. These rings are called annual rings because they grow seasonally and they help the plant to undergo secondary thickening. Generally adult pines have needle-shaped leaves which are green and photosynthetic. The leaves are in bundles or clusters. The leaves (cotyledons) on seedlings are borne in a whorl of 4-24. Juvenile leaves, which follow the seedlings, have single, green leaves arranged spirally on the shoot. They also have non-photosynthetic scale leaves, similar to bud scales. They are arranged spirally like the juvenile leaves.
Cones: A cone is an organ of pines that contains the reproductive structures. The woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cones, which produce pollen, are usually herbaceous and much less conspicuous. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Division Coniferophyta
The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Division Coniferophyta
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the division coniferophyta
Advantages of Conifers
Conifers are very important for the economy because of the softwood, which is used for paper and timber, as well as cedar. They have a large amount of softwood in furniture. In temperate and tropical regions, they are fast-growing softwoods that will allow harvesting in close succession.
Decoration and ceremony. Many pine species make attractive ornamentals. They are planted in parks and larger gardens. Some varieties are suitable for smaller spaces. Pines are also commercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees.
As medicine, Pines and cypress are rich in vitamin; their branches can be removed and used as nutrient supplements.
Due to its soft texture conifers are widely used.
As other higher plants, conifers are source of heat energy, used as firewood and charcoal.
Thick forest of conifers form green belts that modify the climate.
Conifers form a large arena for Biological research Ecological studies.
Food uses: Pine nuts. The soft, moist, white inner bark (cambium) found clinging to the woody grains. bread flour. Also White Pines are rich in Vitamin A and C; flour can be made from the pine tree's inner bark. By chewing the bark of pine you can eliminate bad breath. Pines can reduce the pain of skin infections by applying warm pine sap.
Division Angiospermophyta (Flowering Plants)
General and Distinctive Features of the Angiospermophyta Division
Explain general and distinctive features of the division angiospermophyta
Angiosperms are flowering plants under kingdom Plantae and division Angiospermophyta. This group of plants is sometimes called Magnoliophyta. Angiosperms are the most abundant land plants. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants, but they are distinguished from gymnosperms. These plants produce gymnosperms. The term angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within fruits.
Angiosperms life cycle: The ovary has ovules that contain mega-sporocyte. Mega-sporophyte has four haploid megaspores; three megaspores disintegrate and the others divides to produce the eight nuclei in an embryo sac. The three nuclei are organized into the egg; the two others are egg helpers. These Although Although Although Although Although Although Although Although Although Although Although. The embryo is a female gametophyte or mega-gametophyte.
Pollination and fertilization: The pollen from the anther is transported to the stigma of a flower. In the stigma pollen tube emerges. The mature male gametophyte therefore is a germinated pollen grain, pollen tube and three sperm nuclei. The pollen tube grows downward toward the ovary through the style and penetrates the embryo sac. Dis After dis After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After After. This is what is known as double fertilization. Fertilization in angiosperms begins very soon after pollination.
Note: In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination.
Double fertilization: Double fertilization: A fertilization of a polyploid endosperm. In double fertilization each ovule, a pollen tube that delivers two sperm cells to the embryo sac. One sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form the diploid zygote, while the other sperm fertilizes the central polar cell to form triploid endosperm. After double fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary into a fruit.
General features of angiosperms
They bear flowers which are reproductive structures. Fertilization takes pollenation, wind pollination and animal pollination.
Angiosperms have an underground root as well as an aerial shoot system.
Angiosperms have very well-developed guide tissues. These tissues include the xylem and the phloem arranged in form of vascular bundles.
They have the roots of water and minerals from the soil.
Most of them have leaves that carry out photosynthesis, so they are autotrophs.
They have alternation of generation, Sporophyte generation alternate with gametophyte generation. The sporophyte is the dominant, diploid stage, and the view of the plant, with the leaves, stems, roots, and flowers. Gametophyte generation is reduced within the area of ​​the ovary and anther.
Distinctive features of angiosperms
The most obvious feature of angiosperms is the possession of reproductive structures called flowers.
They bear seeds enclosed in a carpel (the fruit). The seeds are the fertilized ovules.
They have endosperm produced by the first division. Endosperm has nourishing function, it nourishes the embryo.
They have a double fertilization. One sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form the diploid zygote, while the other sperm fertilizes the central polar cell to form triploid endosperm.
Their haploid gametophyte is confined inside the ovary (female) or anther (male) of the flower, unlike the free-living gametophytes of most other plants.
They have conducting tissues phloem and xylem. Unlike gymnosperms which have xylem tracheid angiosperms has xylem vessels.
The Classes of the Division Angiospermophyta and its Distinctive Features
Outline the classes of the angiospermophyta and their distinctive features
Division Angiosperms is divided into two classes which are Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. These two classes are distinguished from each other by their morphology and anatomy.
Features of Class Monocotyledonae
Monocots have one cotyledon (or one seed leaf)
Monocots have broad leaves with parallel venation.
Monocots have fibrous root systems.
The floral parts in monocots occurring in threes, or multiple of three. PMonocots lack cambium secondary growth.
Monocots have scattered vascular bundles in their stems. A typical example of monocot is a maize plant.
Features of Class Dicotyledonae
Dicots have two cotyledons (or two seed leaves).
Dicots have net venation.
Dicots have tap root system
Dicots floral parts occurring in fours and fives and multiple of five.
Dicots have cambium secondary growth.
Dicots have vascular bundles arranged into a ring. A Typical example of dicot is a bean plant.
The Structure of Representative Plants Under Each Class (Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae)
(Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae) Describe the structure of the plant under each class
Structure ofMonocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae plants

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Angiospermophyta Division
Explain advantages and disadvantages of division dngiospermophyta
Advantages of Angiosperms
Agriculture. Agriculture depends on angiosperms. Angiosperms provide human food. Example; plants belonging to grass family (grains), are the most important food stocks. They include rice, maize, wheat, barley, millet, sugar cane and sorghum. Legume provides beans, several varieties of nuts and soy. Also of potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, pumpkins, melons and varieties of vegetables to include cabbage and lettuce. Many fruits oranges, lemons and grapefruits are angiosperms.
Livestock. Plants belonging to grass family is the world number one feeds of livestock. Many types of grassland in Africa are either grazed by cattle or wild animals. Also almost all feeds are consumed by human animals.
Wood. Angiosperms provide different varieties of wood for furniture, paper and building materials. Carpentry and masonry depends largely on angiosperms for both soft and hard wood.
Textile. Different varieties of fibers including cotton, flax, and hemp are important raw materials for textile industry. Cotton is the word first class material for clothes.
Medicine. Many organic drugs are coming from angiosperm herbs. They are either industrial or can be utilized in its raw form. Today it is a form of medicine.
Floriculture. Flowers from angiosperms have a great social significance. Roses for instance are the most sold flowers for wedding and burial ceremonies.
Forestry. Forestry is a subject of both angiosperms and gymnosperms. Many forests form green belts that are different varieties of plants.
Ecology. Angiosperms provide a wide range of habitats for different species of organisms. They also serve as primary producers of energy.
Climate. Angiosperms are used to modify climate. Green belts are established in order to absorb carbon and reduce global warming.
Tourism. Many sites of tourism are plants oriented. Ecotourism for instance varies on many species of land animals.
Disadvantages of Angiosperms
Toxins. Some plants are poisonous when eaten by human and other animals. They cause death to human and other living organisms. Some cassava varieties are a good example. They have cyanide acid that inhibits cellular respiration.
Drugs. Some angiosperm varieties are drugs that can be abused when taken. Examples are marijuana, cocaine, tobacco and some caffeine varieties.
Weeds. Some angiosperm varieties are bad weeds; they reduce crop yields. Some weeds are parasites. Example, Cuscuta kilimanjari is parasitic to coffee plantations.
MOVEMENT
Concept of Movement and Locomotion
The Concept of Movement and Locomotion
Explain the concept of movement and locomotion
Movement refers to change of position and posture. Therefore, the change of position of the body is dry and other body parts.
Locomotion is the movement or change of position.
But normally organisms have different kinds of movement. Plants show movement but do not show locomotion.
SOCIETY OF LIBRARIAN.
The Importance of Movement in Animals and Plants
Explain the importance of movement in animals and plants
Animals and plants move about to:
Find a mate and to reproduce
Escape danger
Seek and capture food
To seek shelter, a suitable habitat / climate
To avoid competition for food / water, living space etc
Find water / soil nutrients, and hold leaves to get maximum sunlight
Seek and capture food
Obtain support
Protect yourself from damage from: touch / pressure, pain or sudden temperature change
Disperse seeds
Movement and Locomotion Actions
Demonstrate movement and locomotion actions
Demonstration of movement and locomotion

Movement action

Locomotion action
Movement of the Human Body, the Human Skeletal System
The Structures of Human Skeleton
Describe the structures of human skeleton
The contraction and the satisfaction of the motivators of a muscular movement in a vertebrate. The BONES, CARTILAGE, JOINTS AND MUSCLES
The Functions of the Human Skeleton and their Adaptations
Explain the functions of the human skeleton and their adaptations
Major Components of the Human Skeleton includeBones, Cartilage, Joints and Muscles
Bones
Bones shall consist of living skins in a hard core.
Bones are classified in to long, short, irregular bones and flat.
Short bones are are short bones, which support weight recreation for many smaller movements. Example bones on the human feet.
Long bones are strong, hollow and light containing spongy bone at the end. And spongy bone has open space and holes, which contain red marrow, which is where red cells are made. Example bones on the legs and arms.
Bones are are bones, breastbone, shoulder bones etc.
Irregular bones are bones are for bones and there are also irregular bones, which conduct sound.
cartilage
Besides bones, the skeletal system has tissue called cartilage. It's the strong body
The cartilage keeps bones from grinding against each other, between the vertebrae cartilage disks act as shock absorbers
Before birth bones are made of cartilage
joints
The human skeleton has about seventy movable joints.
Pivot Joint: This is a type of joint that can twine against another
NB. Joint is the point where two or more bones meet
Pivot joint allows movement in several directions
Hinge is a joint in the direction of elbow


Functions of Skeleton include:
The human skeleton provides mechanical support for the body
Protection for internal organs sk sk sk brain brain the brain the brain the brain the brain the
Skeleton functions as a framework for anchoring the muscles
Skeleton, together with muscles, function to bring about movement in an organism
Muscles and Movement
The Concept of Muscles
Explain the concept of muscles
A muscle is a tissue contract and exert a pull. Muscles are made up of specialized tissues, which are known as contractile tissues. When these tissues contract they become a shorter and tighter, as a result. All muscles are made up of elongated cells called muscle fibers.
Types of Muscles
Mention types of muscles
There are three kinds of muscles in the body of a mammal. These muscles are skeletal muscles (voluntary), smooth (involuntary) muscles and cardiac muscles.
How Muscles Facilitate Movement
Demonstrate how muscles allow movement
Muscles are attached to bones at two points:
At one point a muscle is usually attached to an immovable bone.
Muscles may be attached directly or indirectly by means of tendons. Tendons are tough whitish cords of fibrous materials
Muscles can contract and relax, but do not expand it when the skin is broken and hence, it is attached to the point of insertion.
When a muscle relaxes, it lengthens and becomes thinner
Most drinks act in pairs in the style of the pairs of the the other members relaxes. This means that they never contract or relax at the same time
Muscles acting in pairs in this manner are known as antagonistic muscles. One member of the pair is called extensor
The biceps and triceps are the biceps and the muscles of the upper arms.

When the triceps (extensor) contacts, the limb is straightened. The contraction of the triceps is accompanied by the relaxation of the biceps (flexor). When the biceps, the socks of the arm bends.
The Structure of Muscles
Describe the structure of muscles
Structure of mucles

Adaptations of Different Types of Muscles to their Roles
Explain adaptations of different types of muscles to their roles
Skeletal Muscles
These are the muscles that are attached to bones of the skeleton
The skeletal tissues contract powerfully and fatigue quickly
Their contractions are controlled by the voluntary muscles
Function of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles are concerned with the movement of the skeleton

Smooth Muscles
Smooth (involuntary) muscles are found on the walls of internal organs such as alimentary canal, blood vessels and bladder.
These muscles are made up of spaper and taper at both ends (spindle shaped)
Smooth muscles contract slowly
The contraction of the smooth muscle is involuntary (it is not controlled by the brain)
Function of Smooth Muscles
The smooth muscles, which are formed in different organs. Example: peristalsis in alimentary canal.

Cardiac Muscles
This is the type of muscle, which is found only in the heart. These muscles are made up of a network.
Function
Contraction of cardiac muscles to keep on pumping (ie heart beat)
Causes Effects and Preventive Measures of Muscles Cramps
Explain causes effects and preventive measures of m cramps
A muscle cramp is an involuntary and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax. The cramp may involve some of the muscles. Any of the muscles that are not in our voluntary control can cramp.
Sometimes it breaks your feet, especially when you are in the water.
Causes Muscle Cramps
There are basically two major causes of muscle cramps that are:
Lack of water or salt in the body
Lack of oxygen in the muscles (inadequate oxygenation of muscles)
Prevention of Muscle Crampa
Cramps from poor breathing can also improve the muscles
A muscle cramp from the water, salt, salt, water, salt, salt, salt
Treatment of Muscle Cramps
Applying a soft massage on the cramped muscle, can treat a muscle cramp.
Movement in Plants
The Concept of Movement in Plants (Movement of Curvature)
Explain the concept of movement in plants (movement of curvature)
Generally plants do not show locomotion (movement of the entire organism). However, the movement of an individual plant is possible to modify the plant to external stimuli.
Plant movements in response to internal stimuli are known as spontaneous movement. Examples of these movements are metabolic conditions, disease conditions, vex ages and parental reactions.
Types of Movement Exhibited by Plants
Mention types of movement exhibited by plants
Normally there are two types of plant movements, which are:
Spontaneous movement
Induced (irritable) movement
Spontaneous Movement is a movement in response to internal stimuli. Example of these movements are metabolic conditions, disease conditions, vex ages and parental influences
Induced or Irritable Movement is the external stimuli. Light, temperature, gravity, touch, water and chemical substances are examples of induced movement.
Induced movements include movement, tactic movement and tropic movement.

A summary of the types of reactions that can be carried out in response to stimuli.
Stimuli
Light
Chemicals
Water
Temperature
Contact
Gravity
Gravitactic or Gravitaxis
Tropic Movements in Plants
A stimulus coming from one direction. Tropic movements are also known as tropism movements.
Tropic (tropism) is growth movements, which take place at a very slow pace. The growth movement is caused by the stimulus, with respect to the opposite side. This results in growth in curvature.
There are different types of tropic movements, these are types:
Phototropism or phototropic which is a part of the response to light
Hydrotropism (Hydrotropic) which is growth in the response to water
Thigmotropism (Thigmotropic) which is the growth of movement to the touch
Chemotropism (Chemotropic) which is a growth of chemicals
Thermotropism (Thermotropic), and growth movement shown in plants.
COORDINATION
In this topic you can learn about the concept of cooperation, nervous coordination, sense organs, drugs and drug abuse in relation to nervous coordination, andcoordination in plants.
Concept of Coordination.
The Concept of Coordination in Organisms
Explain the concept of coordination in organisms
Coordination is the working together with the systematicmanner. Without coordination the bodybecomes disorderly and it may fail to function appropriately. Without coordination the bodybecomes disorderly and it may fail to function appropriately. Without coordination the bodybecomes disorderly and it may fail to function appropriately. Without coordination the bodybecomes disorderly and it may fail to function properly.
The coordination in simple multicellular animals takes place through nervous systemonly. The control and coordination in higher animals called vertebrates (including humanbeings) takes place through the nervous system as well as the hormonal system called endocrine system. Coordination in plants is under the control of hormones.
All the living organisms (plants and animals). Responding to the environment around them. The changes in the environment to which organisms corresponds and reacts with stimuli (singular: stimulus). The living organisms showresponse to stimuli such as light, heat, cold, sound, smell, taste, touch, pressure, pain, water, and force of gravity, etc. The ability to perceive, interpret and respond to stimulate iscalled irritability or sensitivity.
There are two types of stimuli: external and internal. External stimuli are associated with the surrounding environment, such as wind, light, pressure, touch, water and gravity. Internal stimuli - the type of stimuli: external and internal. External stimuli are associated with the surrounding environment, such as wind, light, pressure, touch, water and gravity. Internal stimuli - the type of stimuli: external and internal. External stimuli are associated with the surrounding environment, such as wind, light, pressure, touch, water and gravity. Internal stimuli - the type of stimuli: external and internal. External stimuli are associated with the surrounding environment, such as wind, light, pressure, touch, water and gravity. Internal stimuli. Within the body, for example, a decrease in the amount of water and glucose in the blood.
When an organism detects a stimulus, it initiates a response. A response is a behavior, a physiological or muscular activity initiated by a stimulus. For example, if a man touches a very hot utensil accidentally, he quickly pulls his hand away from the hot utensil. Here, heat is the stimulus and the man reacts (responds) by moving his hand away from the hotutensil. Similarly, when the sun is bright, we close our eyes. In this case, light is thestimulus and we reactivate our eyes. Likewise, the pituitary gland secretes an anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) whichstimulates the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.
Multicellular organisms detect stimuli through sense organs called receptors. A receptoris a sense organ (eg eye) or sensory nerve ending (eg in the skin or internal organ) which stimuli and sets nervous impulses. Impulses are electrical transmissionsor. Chemical stimuli that are sent from the receptor to the coordinating system in theorganism. The organs that respond to the stimuli are called effectors. A coordinator isan organ (eg the brain and spinal cord) that receives messages from the receptors, translates them and sends the information. An effector is amuscle or gland which receives impulses from nerves, brain or spinal cord and respondsto them. Response is the end-action, such as the contracting to the movement of the arm. The diagram below illustrates the five components of coordination inmammals.
The Ways in Which Coordination is Brought About
Outline the way in which is being dealt with
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The Meaning of Central Nervous System
Give the meaning of central nervous system
The CNS is a part of the nervous system of the brain and spinal cord. Itcoordinates all the neural functions. The chart below shows subdivisions of the nervoussystem.

The brain
The human brain is a specialized body. This allows humans to interact with the environment, by communicating with others and interacting with inanimate objects. Neartheir surroundings. If the brain is not functioning properly, the ability to move, generate an understandable language can be damaged as well.
The brain has many different parts. Each part has a unique function that allows humans to interact and interact with their environment effectively. The following are parts of the human brain and its functions:
cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the lobe, parietal lobe and frontal lobe.
Parietal Lobe: Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual functions, language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and sensoriccomprehension are.
Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includesareas that help manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioural elements, andlanguage. It is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Occipital Lobe: the occipital lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere. It helps to control vision.
cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain." The cerebellum controls are essential bodyfunctions such as balance, posture and coordination.
Limbic system
The limbic system contains the glands which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responsesthat the body generates are in this area. The limbic system includes theamygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and thalamus.
Amygdala: The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear.
Hippocampus: This part of the brain is used for the learning of memory, specific memory.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus region of the brain, mood, thirst, hunger andtemperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the body.
Thalamus: The thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control theattention span, sensing pain and monitors.
Brain stem
All basic life functions in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons.
Midbrain: This part of the brain helps regulate the body movement, vision and hearing.
Pons: The pons interprets information that is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons also create the level of consciousness necessary for sleep.
Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential part of the heart rate and breathing.
The diagram below shows the basic functions of thebrain.

The Components of the Central Nervous System and its Functions
Identify the components of the central nervous system and its functions
The table below summarizes the structure and the major components of thebrain.




The Structure of the Spinal Cord and Brain
Describe the structure of the spinal cord and brain
Spinal cord
The spinal cord functions also in the transmission of neural circuits that can independentlycontrol numerous reflexes and central pattern generators. It carries out two mainfunctions:
It connects a large part of the peripheral nervous system to the brain. Information (nerve impulses) getting the spinal cord through sensory neurons is transmitted upinto the brain. Signals arising in the world of motor neurons.
The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating center for some simple reflexes like the withdrawal reflex.
The intermediate neurons carrying the impulses to and from specific receptors and effectorsare grouped together in spinal tracts.
The diagram shows various sections of the spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The Meaning of Peripheral Nervous System
Give the meaning of peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is part of the brain and spinal cord. It includes the cranial nerves, spinal nerves and roots, branches, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular junctions.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) has the components of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The PNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The Components of the Peripheral Nervous System and Their Functions
Identify the components of the peripheral nervous system and its functions
The somatic nervous system is made up of voluntary skeletalmuscles and to sensory receptors. It is composed of the central nervous system (spinal cord) and efferent nerves that carry the impulses away from the central nervous system. This system is responsible for the involuntary control of the skeletal muscles, bones and sense organs.
The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into sympathetic andparasympathetic nervous system.
The sympathetic nervous system activates the upfight or flight 'response under suddenor stressful circumstances.
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body to return to normal activity.
Together, these two systems regulate the homeostasis within the body.
Reflex Action
The Meaning of Reflex Action
Give the meaning of reflex action
When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal to the central nervous system, where thebrain co-ordinates the response. But sometimes a very quick response is needed. This is a reflex action.
The reflex action is a rapid, involuntary response to a certain stimulus. The route that isfollowed by impulses during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
Reflex actions are rapid and happen without thinking. For example, you would pullyour hand away from the hot flame without thinking about it. The diagram below shows asimplified reflex arc.

This is what happens:
receptor detects a stimulus - change in the environment
neurone sensors send signal to relay neurone
motor neurone sends signal to effector
effector produces a response
The above process appears to be a long one, in reality, the process takes a very shorttime. It happens within seconds.
The way to change the size of the animal in the eye is also a reflex action. It happens without thinking and beyond our control.
The Neuronic Path of a Reflex Action
Describe the neuronic path of a reflex action
A reflex action can either be simple or conditioned reflex.
Simple reflex action
An example of a simple reflex found in humans is the most reflex, where the pupil of the eye gets bigger in the light. Indim conditions, more light can be formed on theretina. In bright conditions, less light is allowed to enter.
Conditioned reflex action
A conditioned reflex is a specificsituation or stimulus.
A Russian scientist called Pavlov trained dogs to expect food when he heard the bell ring. The dog salivatesnaturally when given food. Pavlov rung a bell every time the dogs were to be given food.After much repetition the dogs salivated when they heard the bell ringing, even whenthere was no food. This is an example of a conditioned reflex.
The dogs were conditioned to salivate when the bell rang. A ringing bell does notnormally cause salivation in dogs. However, when the ringing bell becomes a secondarystimulus, it does not matter, even if the dog is not able to eat the bell asfood.
This is now called a conditioned reflex. In a condition reflex the final response (salivation) has no direct connection with the stimulus (ringing bell).
vAnother example of a conditioned (learned) reflex is a driver. In such circumstances, the first thingthe driver will do the job of the brakes. He haslearned to do this action for any reason.
The Difference between Simple Reflex and Conditioned Reflex Action
Distinguish simple reflex from conditioned reflex action
Differences between conditioned reflex action and simple reflex action

Conditioned reflex
Simple reflex

1
It involves more than one stimuli
Requires only one stimulus

2
Involves the brain
Mostly involves the spinal cord

3
It is an immediate action (no time to learn)
It is an immediate action (no time to learn)

4
It is acquired in one's life
It is inborn

Modifying a reflex response
In some circumstances the brain can modify a reflex response. It does this by sending animpulse along a motor neuron of the reflex arc. This enables us, for example, to hold a dinner dinner plate when normally we would drop it.
Sense Organs
The Meaning of a Sense Organ
Explain the meaning of a sense organ
Sense organs are organs of the body that detect and respond to changes in the environment (stimuli) so as to survive. There are five sense organs in our body: eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. We receive a wide range of information. The sense organs contain receptors. A receptor is acolyte (or a group of cells) in a sense of dry matter, sound, smell, taste, heat, pressure, etc. The different sense organs contain receptors for detectingdifferent stimuli.
The eyes have light receptors (which can detect light), the tongue has the receptors (which can detect smell), the tongue has the tastereceptors, the skin has receptors for detecting touch, pressure, heat (or cold) and pain, etc.
Now, let us look at the structure and the sense of the human body.
Types of Sense Organs and Their Relative Position
Identify the types of Sense organs and their position
The Structure of Each Sense Organ
Describe the structure of each sense authority
The human eye
The eye is the body for vision. The eye is the most important thing in the world. It's the right color, detail and depth. This allows people to make more informeddecisions about their environment. If a part of the eye is damaged, you may not be able to see effectively. You may even lose your vision completely. The table belowshows is a part of the eye, and it is the cornea. The cornea is the outer, transparent covering of the eye. This layerprotects the eye from the elements that could damage the innerparts of the eye. The cornea also helps to focus the light on the eye. The scleros is referred to as the "white" of the eye. It protectsthe eye and maintains the shape of the eye ball. The pupil appears as a black dot in the middle of the eye. This blackarea is actually taking the eye out of theobjects in the front of it. The pupil, the, the controls the amount of light thatenters the eye.Iris The iris contains the pigment. It has radialInternal structure

Parts of the eye and its functions
There are several physical and chemical elements that make up the eye. The table belowshows. Different parts of the human eye.
Eye part
Description and function (s)

Cornea
The cornea is the outer, the banner covering of the eye. This layer protects the eye parts. The cornea also helps to focus on the eye.

sclera
The scleros is referred to as the "white" of the eye. It protects the eye ball.

Favorite
The pupil appears as a black dot in the middle of the eye. This black area is in the light of the eye. The pupil, thus, controls the amount of light that enters the eye.

Iris
The iris contains the pigment which gives the eye its color. It has radial and circular muscles that control the size of the pupil by dilation and contraction. This is how it is around. The iris is the light in the eye.

conjunctiva
This is a membrane that covers the cornea. It is thin and transparent so as to allow light to enter the eye. It is tough and protects the eye from mechanical damage.

Lacrimal glands
These glands are located on the outer corner of each eye. They produce tears which help moisten the eye. As tears flush out a lot. Dangerous irritants, it becomes easier to focus properly.

Lens
This is a transparent structure filled with a jelly-like substance. The lens focuses light into the retina. It is held in place by the suspensory ligaments. Through the ciliary muscles, the lens becomes thicker to focus on the distant objects.

Retina
Retina is the sensory tissues of the inner layer of the eye. It is the view of the brain, it is connected to the brain. The retina is made up of millions of photoreceptors known as rods and cones.

Ciliary body
Ciliary body, also called ciliary muscles, and the shape of the lens. The ciliary body contains glandular cells which secrete the humor.

Suspensors ligaments
The suspensory ligaments attach the lens to the ciliary muscles. When the ciliated muscles contract, they pull the suspensory ligaments and the lens. When the cilers muscles relax, there is less tension on the suspensory ligaments and the lens becomes more spherical in shape. This enables the light rays from the objects.

choroid
The choroid lies between the retina and the scleros, which provides blood supply to the eye. Just like any other part of the body.

Vitreous humor
The vitreous humour is the gel. This gel takes in the nutrients from the body, the humours and the retinal The gel in the vitreous humor is transparent to the eye.

Aqueous Humor
The humor is a watery substance that fills the eye. The aqueous humor gives the view of the cornea and lens. This liquid is drained through the Schlemm canal so that any build-up in the eye can be removed. If the person's humour is not draining properly, s / he can develop glaucoma.

Optic nerve
Optic nerve is a cranial nerve which contains sensory neurones. The neurones transmit impulses from the rods and cones of the retina to the brain for interpretation. The optic nerve exits the eye at the blind spot

Blind spot
It is located at the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. The blind spot is not sensitive because it has no rods or cones.

fovea
The fovea is the center of the macula *. This tiny area is responsible for our central, sharpest vision. A healthy fovea is important for reading, watching television, driving, and other activities. The retina is the very center of the macula.

Adaptations of the eye to its functions
The features are:
Conjunctiva, cornea and lens are transparent to allow light to pass through them.
Sclerotic layer is made up of (collagen) fibers; it maintains the shape of eyeball / protect the eye from mechanical damage.
Cornea is transparent and curved thus refracts light rays and allows light to passthrough.
Choroid (a layer of tissue) has black or dark pigments that prevent internalreflections of light in the eye.
The eye contains blood vessels in the choroids of the eye.
Retina is made of photoreceptors known as rods and cones, which trap light rays.
Yellow spot (fovea) has the highest concentration of cones for accurate and sharp, central vision.
Optic nerve has sensory neurons for transmission of nerve impulses to the brain (forinterpretation).
Lens is biconvex and made up of elastic.
Suspensors ligaments are fibrous to hold the lens in place.
. The ciliary body contains cilers, which are contractile for controlling thecurvature and hence the focal length of the lens. It also contains glands that secrete theaqueous and vitreous humours.
The iris is opaque and contractile for controlling the amount of the animal.
Ocular massage coordinate eye movement so that both eyes can follow a movingobject together.
The eyelid covers an eye and prevents it from mechanical damage and invasion byforeign bodies.
Eye lashes help to prevent dust and small insects.
The presence of wetlands and the vitreous humours helps the eye to bend light raystoward retina to process the signal and send impulse to the brain.
The Functions of Sense Organs and their Adaptive Features
Explain the functions of sense organs and their adaptive features
Adaptations of the eye to its functions
The features are:
Conjunctiva, cornea and lens are transparent to allow light to pass through them.
Sclerotic layer is made up of (collagen) fibers; it maintains the shape of eyeball / protect the eye from mechanical damage.
Cornea is transparent and curved thus refracts light rays and allows light to passthrough.
Choroid (a layer of tissue) has black or dark pigments that prevent internalreflections of light in the eye.
The eye contains blood vessels in the choroids of the eye.
Retina is made of photoreceptors known as rods and cones, which trap light rays.
Yellow spot (fovea) has the highest concentration of cones for accurate and sharp, central vision.
Optic nerve has sensory neurons for transmission of nerve impulses to the brain (forinterpretation).
Lens is biconvex and made up of elastic.
Suspensors ligaments are fibrous to hold the lens in place.
. The ciliary body contains cilers, which are contractile for controlling thecurvature and hence the focal length of the lens. It also contains glands that secrete theaqueous and vitreous humours.
The iris is opaque and contractile for controlling the amount of the animal.
Ocular massage coordinate eye movement so that both eyes can follow a movingobject together.
The eyelid covers an eye and prevents it from mechanical damage and invasion byforeign bodies.
Eye lashes help to prevent dust and small insects.
The presence of wetlands and the vitreous humours helps the eye to bend light raystoward retina to process the signal and send impulse to the brain.
The human ear
The ear is the body of hearing and maintaining balance and posture. The outer earprotrudes away from the head and the heart of the middle ear of the malaysia, incus and stapes. The inner ear, orcochlea, is a spiral-shaped chamber covered by the auditory nerve. The brain combinesthe.
The inner ear has a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are responsible for the sense of balance and spatial orientation. The inner ear has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium carbonate. The movement of these particles is interpreted as motion and acceleration. The figure below shows the internal structure of themammalian ear.

Adaptations of the mammalian ear to its functions
The earliest features are:
The outer ear (pinna) is a flap of tissue which collects sound waves and directs theminto the inner ear via the auditory canal.
The lining of auditory canal contains the wax-secreting cells which produce wax. Thewax in the canal traps dust particles and heaps protects the muscles from microbial infections.
The ear drum is thin and diaphragm, and it can be heard in the middle ear.
The ear ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) act as a lever system which can moveforward and backward to amplify and transmit vibrations to the oval window.
The Eustachian tube is hollow, and the fact that the drum is able to vibrate in the middle of the ear
The cochlea is coiled to increase the surface for sound reception. It also cariesauditory nerves which transmit sound impulses to the brain for interpretation.pinnaear drumskull bonesemi-circular canalsauditor canaleustachian tuberound windowcochleaauditory nerveInternal structure of the human earoval window
The presence of fluid-filled vestibular apparatus (semi-circular canals, sacculus, andutriculus) in the inner ear facilitates the balancing of sound when the fluid is displaced.
The tongue
The tongue is an organ responsible for taste. It is the primary organ of taste (gustation), asmuch of its upper surface is taste in taste. The tongue is upper surface is alsocovered with numerous lingual papillae. The tongue is sensitive and kept moist by saliva, and is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels.
The receptors for taste, called the taste buds, are in the mouth of the pharynx. They are able to detect four basictastes: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour.
Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to bitter tastes. The taste budsin the sides of the tongue are sensitive to sour tastes. At the base of each taste there is a nerve that sends the sensations to the brain. The sense of smell.
The number of taste buds varies from individual to individual, but greaternumbers increase sensitivity. Women, in general, have a greater number of taste budsthan men. As in the case of color blindness, some people are insensitive to some tastes.

Adaptation of the tongue to its functions (as a sense organ)
The language is:
The tongue has taste buds which is responding to stimuli such as sweet, bitter, sour and salty.
At the base of each taste there is a nerve that sends the sensations to the brain.
The human nose
The nose is the body responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is linedwith mucous membranes that have the smell of receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. Thesmells themselves consist of vapours of various substances. The smell receptors interactwith the molecules of these vapours and transmit the sensations to the brain. The smellers are sensitive to the camphor, musk, flower, mint, ether, acrid, or putrid. The sense of smell is sometimes temporarilylost when a person has a cold. Dogs have a sense of smell more than man's.

When we want to -smell‖ food in the air draws into the contact with hairs on the sensory cells. Different chemicalsstimulate different sensory cells and nervous impulses are set to pass along.
When our nose is blocked with cold, our food may become -tasteless‖ because we nolonger smell it.
Adaptations of the nose to its functions
The features are:
There are olfactory nerves, which carry impulse from the nose to the olfactory lobesof the brain for interpretation.
Presence of mucus-secreting cells, which produce mucus that keep the surface of thenose moist.
Presence of hairs in the nose and the other foreign bodies. When the mucus is blown out of the nose, carries the dust and other bodies with it, so the same the olfactory organs from damage.
The human skin
The skin is the outer covering of the body. In humans, it is the largest organ of the system. The skin of the muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. It protects us from microbes and the elements; helps regulate body temperature; and permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold.
The skin has three layers:
The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier andcreates our skin tone
The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hairfollicles, and sweat glands
The deeper subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) is made of fat and connectivetissue.
The skin's color is produced by special cells called melanocytes, which produce thepigment melanin. Melanocytes are located in the epidermis.

The skin contains sensor nerve endings which are receptors. They are sensitive to pain, pressure, touch, heat and coldness. When the nerve endings are stimulated, they set up impulses which are interpreted.

Functions of skin
Regulation: The skin plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature (endothermic).
The skin manufactures vitamin D through exposure. Ergosterol in thefatty layer of the skin converts to vitamin D under the influence of sunlight.
The skin produces melanin that protects the body from the ultra violet radiationswhich can cause skin cancer.
The skin acts as a sensory organ due to the presence of various nerve endings.
Protection: It prevents micro-organism and other foreign materials from entering the body.
Excretion: Sweat glands produce sweat, which gets rid of excess heat, water, salts, some carbon dioxide and urea.
Storage: Fat is a food store in the dermis.
Adaptations of the skin is its functions (as a sense organ)
The human features are:
It has the hair erector that it has the hair of the surrounding.
It is supplied with nerves which convey impulses to the CNS to be interpreted.
Presence of blood vessels (in the dermis) which is the heat of the body temperature is low heat. The blood vessels also supply oxygen andremove skin andremove excretory products.
The skin has a sweat glands which produce sweat to help cool the body. During a hotday, the glands produce sweat (through sweat pores). Evaporation of the sweat use body heat and hence help to cool down the body.
Drugs and Drug Abuse in Relation to Nervous Coordination
The Meaning of Drugs and Drug Abuse, in Relation to Nervous Coordination
Explain the meaning of drugs and drug abuse, in relation to nervous coordination
Drugs
A drug is any chemical substance, natural or synthetic, that has known physiologicaleffects on humans or other animals. Foods are not included in the definition, physiological effects on animal species.
Most drugs, both useful and harmful, may affect the body (especially the brain), byaltering the nerve cells' natural reaction to the chemicals, or by mimicking the body'snormal compounds.
Some drugs slow down the passage of stimuli by affecting nerve cell membranes, andothers act like neurotransmitters, perhaps passing stronger or longer-lasting impulses. Assuch they may change the way sensory information is processed, or affect the thinkingprocess.
Stimulants are drugs which are in the caffeine, found in tea andcoffee. Sedatives are drugs. Evenone alcoholic drink will have some effect on the brain.
Proper Ways of Handling and Using Drugs
Outline of proper ways of handling and using drugs
Proper use and handling of drugs
When using precautions must be observed:
Avoid taking any drug without prescription.
Always stay away from peer pressures and drug addicts to avoid copying their badhabits.
Keep yourself busy with a number of activities such as sports and games, readingbooks, etc. Remember ‗an idle mind is the devil's workshop '!
Report any case of drug abuse or trafficking to concerned authorities.
Form a counseling club to advise people especially youths on how to keep off from drugs.
If one feels addicted, s / he should seek advice from health officials.
Never take a more or less prescription.
Complete the prescribed dose even after you have the symptoms of the disease has disappeared.9. Keep all drugs out of reach of children and drug addicts.
Drug addiction
Drug addiction refers to the appearance of withdrawal symptoms. While drug use oftenbegins as addictive properties of the drug. This compulsion is uncontrolled and may interfere with aperson's everyday life. Even when the drugs are affected, family members and co-workers, the constant need for adrug often overcomes any rational thinking.
The human body has the ability to produce chemicals for its properfunctioning. The body is able to produce these chemical substances. Since these are the needs of the drug for itsfunctioning. Therefore, a person craves for the drug so much that he / she feels can not livewithout taking it. At this level the drug abuser is addicted to the drug. This iscalled drug addiction.
Causes and Effects of Drug Addiction
Explain causes and effects of drug addiction
Like many mental health disorders, several causes may contribute to the development of drugaddiction and dependence. Some of the causes of drug abuse and addiction include thefollowing:
Some people take drugs to avoid physical pain, discomfort, stress, boredom, anxiety and depression.
Some people are also taking drugs to avoid problems and life hardships.
Recreation: Drug users believe that taking drugs make them "better" and lively.
Peer pressure leads people to drug and inthe peer group. It is often said that teens use drugs when their friends. Using drugsall these young people to fit in with the crowds
. Desire for a new experience and arousal: Some people just take drugs as an addiction.
Lack of life and social skills, for example second resistance skills that would help aperson learn how to say no or avoid bad influence. People who are easy to copyhabits from others, can easily get intodrug use.
Effects of drug abuse and addiction
Effects of drug abuse and addiction
Many illegal chemicals have an extreme effect on the brain, eg some drugscause hallucinations - objects around you may change color, shape and size. Such experiments may cause fear, depression, and mental disorders. Mostly, these substances alter one's perception ofreality.
Drugs produce a variety of short term effects, high blood pressure, dizziness, tremors, mood changes, and paranoia.In high dosages, the risk for heartattack, stroke, respiratory failure and coma increases. The various effects of drug abuseinclude the following:
Drugs confuse the mental faculties, oroverdose on the chemicals. Drugs can also induce them to dangerous activities suchas unsafe sex or reckless driving.
Many drugs induce a feeling of dependency (addiction) and are linked with criminalactivity.
Solvent abuse (sniffing glue, lighter fuel, etc.) - on which one can easily overdose -can cause death by heart failure.
Substances substances ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther ther body body body body body body Other. Even "legal" chemicals, such as alcohol (a "social" drug!), Haveadverse effects on the body.
They can lead to aggressiveness, crime, violence and divorce.
Sharing of HIV infections andhepatitis among the addicts. Likewise, because drugs limited one's judgement, it canlead to unprotected sex and hence become the cause of contracting other sexuallytransmitted diseases like syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and herpes.
Drugs are very expensive to purchase. Therefore, the addicts spend their family needs.
Many drug addicts are not able to participate in successively. This leads to poverty, and a fact that can lead to failure to meet one's basicneeds.
Drug addiction among women can lead to birth defects, birthdefects or learning and behavioural problems. Ce, illicit drugs may containimpurities that may be harmful to unborn baby
Medical concerns like depression and anxiety can severely interrupt the addict and social life, leading to mood swings, chronic fatigue and diminishedinterest in former hobbies and important life events.
Preventive and Control Measures of Drug Abuse
Suggest preventive and control measures of drug abuse
Drug abuse is a serious psycho-sociological problem often difficult to be cured. The bestway to avoid these tragedies is to never start taking drugs. However, nowadays specifictreatments are available for different types of mental illness. A regular, prolonged andsincere treatment is required. Social therapy or rehabilitation has got a very significant effect. The following activities can be done for the control of drug addiction:
Early detection, treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts can help minimize theproblem.
Parents should set a warm and friendly atmosphere at home. Canfeel easy to cooperate with.
Motivation of the addicts to make up for detoxification.
The youth should be motivated to get involved in the fight against drug abuse.
Educating the community about the problems of drug addiction.
Enforcement of laws, regulations and regulation.
The school curricula should contain lessons about the drug addiction.
Various effects of drug addiction, media, radio, television, magazine, social media, and many others.
The experience of drug makethe is a new generation of people who can be advertised to the people through media.
Location of the Different Endocrine. Glands in the Mammalian Body
Identify the location of the different endocrine glands in the mammalian body
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones which regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and other functions. The glands are located in various parts of the body. The function of these glands is to release various hormones, and as a whole, they are referred to as the endocrine system. These glands are pituitarygland, hypothalamus, thymus, pine gland, testes, ovaries, thyroid, adrenal glands, parathyroid and pancreas. The location of these glands in the human body is as shown inthe diagrams below.

The role of Hormones produced by each Endocrine gland
Explain the role of hormones produced by each endocrine gland
The hormones released by glands of the endocrine system.
Disorders of Hormonal Coordination in Mammals
Outline disorders of hormonal coordination in mammals
Causes of endocrine disorders
The causes of endocrine disorders are typically grouped into two categories:
Endocrine disease, results of a hormone imbalance.
Endocrine disease is a development of lesions (such as nodules or tumours) inthe endocrine system, which may or may not affect hormone levels.
The endocrine's feedback system helps control the hormone in thebloodstream. If your body has too much of the right gland or glands to correct the problem. A hormone imbalancemay occur if this is not a good thing for your bloodstream system.
Increased or revised levels of endocrine hormone may be caused by:
A problem with the endocrine feedback system.
Disease.
Failure of a gland to stimulate another gland to release hormones in the pituitarygland.
A genetic disorder, such as multiple endocrine meoplasia or congenitalhypothyroidism.
Infection.
Injury is an endocrine gland.
Tumour of an endocrine gland.Most endocrine tumors and nodules (lumps) are non-cancerous. They usually do not have to be part of the body. However, a tumor or nodule on the gland may interferewith the gland's hormone production.
Types of endocrine disorders
There are many different types of endocrine disorders. Majority of endocrine disorderscause the endocrine glands to produce too much (hypersecretion) or too low (hyposecretion) of a given hormone from a particular gland. Common problems thatresult from oversecretion (hypersecretion) or undersecretion (hyposecretion) of givenhormones from given endocrine glands are explained below.
PITUITARY GLAND
Hypersecretion of growth hormone: Gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults.If the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone, a child's bones and body partsmay grow abnormally fast.
Hyposecretion of growth hormone: Pituitary dwarfism - if the condition occurs during the next one, it slows down long bone growth.
Hypersecretion of ADH: Causes increased reabsorption of water in kidney tubulesleading.
Hyposecretion of ADH: Less water is absorbed from the glomeruli filtrate back to the body. This is called diuresis and isa symptom of diabetes inspidus.
THYROID GLAND
Hyperthyroidism
Grave's disease: Grave's disease. Grave's disease. Grave's disease, considered an autoimmune disease, shows elevated weight loss, nervousness, excessive perspiration, nervousness, highmetabolic rate and rapid, irregular heartbeat.
Exophthalmos: protrusion of the eyeballs caused by oedematous tissue behind theeyes.
hypothyroidism
Cretinism (infantile hypothyroidism) - shows stunted growth, thickened facialfeatures, abnormal bone development and mental retardation.
Myxedema - low metabolic rate, lethargy (a condition characterized by extremefatigue or drowsiness, or prolonged sleep patterns), weight gain, increase in bodyfluids.
Goitre - abnormal growth of the thyroid gland.
PARATHYROID GLAND
Hyperparathyroidism: demineralization of bone resulting in possible bone deformity and fracture, and stones in the urinary tract
Hypoparathyroidism: decreased plasma calcium levels which can lead to uncontrolled muscle spasms.
pancreas
Hyperinsulinism: The liver is an overstimulated to convert excess glucose to glycogen andfats for storage. This leads to low glucose concentration in the blood, and condition called hypoglycemia. This condition results in the absence of glucose delivery, the unconsciousness and even death (usually the result of an overdose ofinsulin).
Hypoinsulinism: Under-secretion of isulphismes and fats. This results in elevated glucose levels in the blood and urine. Thecondition is called hyperglycaemia, and is a symptom of diabetes mellitus. Over time, diabetics experience vascular and neural problems. Secondarily, poor circulation maylead to gangrene, blindness, kidney damage and impotence.
ADRENAL GLAND
Hypersecretion of corticosteroids: Cushing's syndrome - changes in carbohydrate and metabolism in a puffy appearance.
Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids: Addison's disease -symptoms of the disease, fatigue, stomach upset, hypoglycaemia, sodium and potassium imbalance, dehydration, hypotension, and rapid weight loss. Death occurs withlack of treatment.
Hypersecretion of adrenaline: hypertension, obesity, headache, increased heartbeat, weak bones, hyperglycaemia, nervousness, sweating and early onset of sexualdevelopment.
Hyposecretion of adrenaline: low blood pressure, fatigue, muscular weakness, musclewasting, inability to withstand stress, and increased dark pigmentation of the skin.
ovaries
Hypersecretion of oestrogen: Causes declined sexual desire, heavy menstrual flow and weighted in females.
Hyposecretion of oestrogen: Hyposecretion of oestrogen: the development of reproductive organs, liver, kidney andlungs.
testes
Hypersecretion of testosterone: Causes males to have female features as enlargedbreasts and a wide pelvis.
Hyposecretion of testosterone: Causes of males to develop some secondarysexual characteristics, poor development of reproductive organs and weak bones andmuscles.
THYMUS
Not responsible for any effects of hypo or hyper secretion of thymosin.
pineal
Not responsible for any effects of hypo or hyper secretion of melatonin.
Coordination in Plant, Concept of Tropic and Nastic Responses
The Concept of Tropic and Nastic Responses
Explain the concept of tropic and responses
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
Both, plants and animals react (or respond) to various stimuli around them. But themethod of reacting to stimuli is not similar in plants and animals. They react to stimuli indifferent ways. For example, plants bend towards light and animals do not bend towards light. The animal amoeba reacts to the presence of food by moving towards the foodparticle.
The plants do not have a nervous system and sense organs like eyes, ears, or nose, etc. The plants can sense the presence of light, gravity, chemicals, water, and touch, etc., and respond to them. Theysense these stimuli by using hormones in them.
The stimuli like light, gravity, chemicals, water, and touch, etc., are called environmentalchanges. So, we can say say that the plants coordinate their behaviors againstenvironmental changes by using hormones. The hormones in plants do not act the same way as in animals.
The hormones in plants coordinate the behavior of the plant of the plant.
Experiments to Investigate the Effects of Tropic and Nastic Responses in Plants
Carry out experiments to investigate the tropics and nastic responses in plants
Plants receive and respond to their survival in the environment. These responses allow the plants to survive, grow, develop and reproduce. Tropisms aregrowth responses of plants that or away from certain stimuli. Tropisms can be positive, in which case the plant will bend toward astimulus, or negative, in which case the plant will bend away from a stimulus.
The evolution of the plants and the root system towards the earth.
Important tropisms in plants include phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism, chemotropism and thigmotropism.
Phototropism
Phototropism is the tendency for plant organs to bend in response to a directional lightsource. For example, light streaming in a window from the view of the window, a positive phototropism.
Most plant photographed because they are away from light.

The Importance of Tropic and Nastic Responses
Explain the importance of tropic and responses
Importance of phototropism
Phototropism is the most important plant in the world. It can be transported to photosynthesiseffectively.
Geotropism
Geotropism is the movement towards the plant towards gravity. In most plants, rootsgrow downward with gravity and shoots grow upward against gravity. Hours Within Within Within Within Within Within Within Within Within Within Within.
Bridge plant roots grow towards gravity and are said to be positively geotropic. Mostshoots grow away from gravity and are said to be negatively geotropic.

Importance of geotropism
Geotropisms are important for plants because of the following reasons:
It allows the plants to send roots into the ground.
It enables plant roots to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
Negative geotropism exhibited by the shoot to grow upwards, andin so doing, exposes the plant leaves to maximum sunlight for effectivephotosynthesis
Hydrotropism
Hydrotropism is the movement of a plant. Plant rootsnormally grow towards moisture. They are therefore positively hydrotropic. If you plant aplant near a water source such as porous pot or river, the roots will always grow towardswater.

Importance of hydrotropism
It allows the plants to absorb dissolved minerals and water. Water is necessary forvarious functions such as:
Photosynthesis
Numerous physiological responses that take place within plant cells.
Turgor pressure, which aids in plant support.
Dissolution of mineral salts.
Chemotropism

An example of positive and negative chemo-tropism is shown by a plant's roots; the roots of minerals for useful minerals displaying positive chemo-tropism, and grow away from harmful acids displaying negative chemo-tropism.
Chemotropism is a movement or an organism or a part of an organism in reaction to a chemical stimulus. During the process of fertilization the movement ofpollen tube towards an ovule of chemotropism
Importance of chemotropism
It allows the plant to absorb chemicals such as fertilizers.
Negative geotropism, such as when plant roots grow away from the toxins, the plant can help you to avoid contact with so much chemicals.
. It facilitates the fertigation process in flowering plants.
Thigmotropism or haptotropism
Thigmotropsim refers to non-directional movements. The best example of Mimosa pudica planted in the village of Mimosa pudica. Also the specialized touch-sensitivetendrils of many vining plants, such as pea, will bend toward the receiving and touchstimulus. A continual stimulation can lead to the grasp of objects that can climb


Importance of thigmotropism
Thigmotropism allows crawling plants to climb up higher plants and expose their sunlight to optimal photosythesis.
It makes the insectivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap to trap insects and digestthem to obtain nutrients.
excretion
Concept of Excretion
The Concept of Excretion
Explain the concept of excretion
Chemical reactions in the body of living organisms. The sum of these reactions is called metabolism. Metabolism produces useful products as well as toxic (poisonous) by-products.
These toxic substances have to be removed. The removal of metabolic waste products from the body of the organism is known as excretion.
The major excretory products are carbon dioxide, excess water, and nitrogenous compounds like ammonia, urea, uric acid, etc. Carbon dioxide and water are produced in the process of tissue respiration. Nitrogenous compounds are formed from the breakdown of proteins and amino acids. Water and salts in excess of the body's needs are also excreted.
Exc Other exc Other exc Other exc chemicals exc chemicals, toxic exc exc Other Other Other. Other excretory products. We will learn how metabolic wastes get eliminated.
In concise, excretion is the process of eliminating from an organism.
Examples of Excretory Products Eliminated by Organisms
Give examples of excretory products eliminated by organisms
Living organisms. Excrete various excretory products of diverse chemical nature. The following are examples of excretory products by living organisms:
Carbon dioxide: This is a product of respiration. It is excreted through the pores of the plant in some of the carbon dioxide produced by respiration and is used in photosynthesis. In man, carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body by lungs.
Water: The concentration of water must be kept within narrow limits. Too little water can have a negative effect on the osmotic condition. Therefore, it has to be regulated. Plant cells are protected from bursting by their cell walls. Animals do not have cell walls, and they have too much water. Excess water is lost on the surface of gaseous exchange in both plants and animals. In mammals, water is also lost through sweat and through osmoregulation controlled by the kidneys.
Urea: This is a compound produced in mammals from the breakdown of excess amino acids. Amino acids can not be stored because of accumulation is toxic. They are therefore converted into a less toxic substance. This process occurs in the liver and is called de-amination.Ammonia is converted to urea by the liver. Urea is transported by blood to the kidneys where they are excreted. The kidneys are also used to remove uric acid, water, excess salts, excess hormones and bile pigments.
Calcium oxalate: is is a waste material. Calcium oxalate is stored in aging leaves, stems and roots, flowers or fruits.
Oxygen: Through the process of photosynthesis, oxygen is produced as a by-product. Some of the oxygen is used for respiration, and the remains are in the plant. Some plants are dead. Examples of this are tannin in the heart of trees such as logwood. The purpose of the waste is to increase the risk of being consumed.
Excretion in Human
The main excretory system in humans is the urinary system. The skin also acts as an organ of excretion. The urinary system includes a pair of bean-shaped kidneys located in the back of the abdominal cavity.
Excretory Organs in Human Being
Mention excretory organs in human being
There are special organs concerned with the removal of excretory products from the body. Such organs are called excretory organs. The excretory organs in an animal body the kidney, the skin the lungs and the liver. The following table shows the excretory organs and the products they excrete.
The table below summarizes the excretion of excretory products.
Excretory product
Organ
Mode of excretion

Carbon dioxide
lungs
exhalation

Urea and excess mineral salts
kidneys
urine


Skin
Sweat

Excess water
kidneys
urine


Skin
Sweat


lungs
Water vapor

Bile pigments (from breakdown of haemoglobin)
Liver
faeces

A comparison between different excretory products can be made. The following is the comparison between different types of excretory products:
Waste
Advantages
Disadvantages
Habitat
Excreted by

ammonia
Produced with little energy
Toxic in concentrated solution. Excretion take place in lot of water
Water
Marine and fresh water invertebrates, bony fishes, amphibians

Urea
Less toxic than ammonia. Less water is needed to excrete it
Requires more energy to produce it
Land, Sea
Adult amphibians, turtles, mammals and bony fishes

Uric Acid
Very little water is used for excretion
Requires considerable energy to produce it
Land
Reptiles, birds, insects, gastropods (snails and slugs)

guanine
Relatively non toxic. Less water is used to excrete it
More energy is needed
Arid habitat
Scorpions, Spiders

The excretory organs in humans beings may be in the groups, primary and accessory organs:
Primary excretory organs
Kidneys: Kidneys are bean-shaped organs of a reddish brown color that are found in the side of the vertebral column. Once the body has extracted wastes from food, it sends the wastes to the kidneys. The kidneys filter the wastes, including urea, salt and excess water, which are flushed out of the body.
Skin: The skin performs its excretory function via the sweat glands. These are coiled tubules surrounded by blood capillaries. These glands produce sweat that contains mineral salts, excess oils, water, and traces of urea and lactic acid from sweat pores. The tubules extend into sweat ducts. Sweating also helps to cool the body during evaporation.
Lungs: The lungs are very important excretory organs as they expel carbon dioxide from the body via exhalation. The lungs use cells known as alveoli to remove the carbon dioxide from our blood. Otherwise, the carbon dioxide would accumulate and have a detrimental effect to our body.
Accessory excretory organs
Liver: Thoughts in the body, the liver. Amino acids are the end-product of proteins. Excess amino acids can not be stored in the body. They are taken from the gut into the liver by the hepatic portal vein. The liver converts to useful carbohydrates (stored in the form of glycogen) and ammonia. Ammonia is very poisonous and must be removed from the body. The liver converts ammonia into a harmless compound called urea. Urea dissolves in the blood and is transported to the kidney via the hepatic vein.
Gall bladder: Although the gallbladder does not have a role to play in the system. Bile, a liquid produced by the liver to be broken down, is stored in the gall bladder. When needed, it is discharged into the small intestine. Its role is to break down, ethanol and other acidic wastes.
Urinary bladder: The urinary bladder: The urinary bladder. The urinary bladder provides a short term treatment for storing urine in the body until it is ultimately discharged.
Ureters: The ureters tubes of smooth muscle fiber transfer liquid waste from the kidneys into the urinary bladder. The urine is moved with a peristaltic movements. The ureters also have ureterovesical valves that ensure the kidney.
Urethra: The urethra runs through the penis in males, and serves as a carrier for the ultimate discharge of the body. The urethra tube is shorter in females and is just above the vaginal opening.
Large intestine: Food particles are absorbed into the blood stream via the small intestine. The undigested substances are transferred to the large intestine. The descending, ascending and transverse colons also facilitate the absorption of leftover vitamins, water and salt. The distal straight section (faeces) before the inside of the anal canal with the help of internal and external sphincters.
The Urinary System and its Adaptive Features
Describe the urinary system and its adaptive features
The urinary system is a system with production, storage and removal of urine. In humans, ureters, blood vessels that join them, urinary bladder and urethra.

The human urinary system
Each kidney is connected to a urinary bladder by a tube called the ureter. As urine is formed, it passes through the ureter to the urinary bladder. Below the bladder is a tube called urethra which is surrounded by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles. The urethra is a canal that carries urine from the bladder and expels it outside the body. The urethra passes urine when sphincter muscles relax.
The kidneys: Kidneys are bean-shaped organs that are deep in the color of the aboriginal cavity. Mammals have one pair of kidneys. Kidneys are the principle organs of the urinary system.
Functions of the kidneys
They filter blood to remove wastes and reabsorb.
They maintain appropriate water-salt balance in the blood.
They are regulating the acid-base balance.
They are important in the regulation of blood pressure.
They produce erythropoietin, calcitriol and an enzyme called rennin, which is involved in the formation of the hormone, angiotensin, which raises blood pressure. Erythropoietin is a hormone in the bone marrow. Calcitriol is an active form of vitamin D which increases the rate of calcium reabsorption for bone formation.
Structure of the kidney
Each kidney is enclosed in a thin, fibrous covering called the capsule. The kidney has three distinct regions, the cortex, medulla and pelvis. The cortex is the outermost layer of the kidney. The medulla is the middle layer of the kidney, normally red in color. The pelvis is the space inside the kidney which collects the urine and leads it to the ureter. The ureter passes urine to the urinary bladder where it is stored in the genitals.
Each kidney is supplied with oxygen-rich blood from the renal artery. Deoxygenated blood is returned to the circulatory system from the kidneys via the renal vein. Blood entering the kidneys from the renal artery are rich in waste materials, and blood exiting the kidneys from the renal vein is deficient in these waste materials.

Structure of the kidney
The nephron
Each kidney is made up of numerous, coiled excreta tubules known as nephrons, and collecting ducts associated with tiny blood vessels.
A nephron consists of a long, coiled tubule, and the Malpighian corpuscle. The tubule of the nephron is a convoluted tubule, loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule. The distal tubule opens into the collecting duct.
At the proximal end of the nephron is the Malpighian corpuscle, which consists of Bowman's capsule and the glomerulus. Bowman's capsule is a double-walled, cup-like structure which surrounds the dense network of blood capillaries called the glomerulus.

Structure of the nephron
There is a branch of the renaissance artery, the afferent arteriole, entering the small cup-like space of the Bowieman's capsule and a network of blood capillaries. This network is known as theglomerulus. Emerging from this network, the capillaries re-unite to form a small arteriole, known astheefferent arteriole. As the efferent arteriole still it twines around the proximal and distal convoluted tubule. The efferent arteriole divides into capillaries at several lengths of the tubules, absorbing various substances. These capillaries eventually reunite to drain into the renal vein. The efferent arteriole is smaller than the afferent arteriole. This difference in diameter helps to raise the glomerular pressure and aids in ultra filtration.
Some animals do not have a well-developed kidney; they may have structures called nephridia. Animals such as earthworms that are the simple complex of the nephrons in the kidneys.
The Process of Urine Formation
Explain the process of urine formation
The blood from the afferent arteriole, which enters the Bowman's capsule, is rich in nutrients, glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, proteins, urea and excess salts. A nephron is the structural and functional unit of a kidney which is concerned with excretion and haemostasis.
The three (3) distinct stages of urine formation are: (1) glomerular filtration, (2) tubular reabsorption and secretion, and (3) water conservation
Glomerular filtration: Filtration occurs in the glomerulus (plural; glomeruli). Because the glomerulus is the lungs of the afferent arteriole. Pressure This forces This forces This This This This This. The plasma contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, salts, uric acid, vitamins, and hormones. Blood blood cells and blood vessels are in the blood. This process is called ultra-filtration and the fluid which is in the bowel form. It is a glomerular filtrate collects in the capsule and the renal tubule of the proximal convoluted tubule. of substances.
Reabsorption and secretion: The effect of the proximal convoluted tubule. There, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones and about 80% of sodium chloride are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. Only the substances that are useful to the body are reabsorbed. This is referred to as selective reabsorption. Normally 100% of glucose is reabsorbed. Blood cells are not reabsorbed due to their large molecular size. Reabsorption is the diffusion and active transport (against concentration gradient), which uses energy in the form of ATP. The waste-exposed fluid that remains after reabsorption is urine. Tubular secretion is the passage of renal tubules. Tubular secretion is another way of getting lost in the urine. For example, drugs such as penicillin and phenobarbital are secreted into the reef tubules from the capillaries. Urea and uric acid that may have been reabsorbed are secreted. Excess potassium ions are also secreted into the urine. Tubular secretions also maintain the pH of the blood.
Water conservation: In the distal convoluted tubule, water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis. The tubule is also highly increased to the surface area for reabsorption. The glomerular filtrate then flows into the collecting tubules where more water is reabsorbed. The filtrate now called urinate. It then flows into the bladder. When it gets full, impulses are in the bladder. A person then fells the need to urinate and the bladder muscles contract, sphincter muscles relax and the urine is expelled via the urethra.

Reabsorption and secretion by the nephron
Adaptations of the urinary system to its functions
The urinary system has a large afferent arteriole, and narrow efferent arteriole, which allows build up of pressure, thus facilitating ultra-filtration.
The glomerulus capillaries are highly coiled and semi permeable, causing a glomerulus hence ultrafiltration.
The glomerular capillaries are semi permeable (tubule also semi permeable) to allow selective movement of materials in and out of the nephron (selective reabsorption).
The tubules' epithelium is thin (1 cell thick) is reduce diffusion for faster passage and hence reabsorption of materials; and they are more than normal capillaries.
It is connected to a filtration (urine) out of the nephron.
The proximal convoluted tubule and the distal convoluted tubule are coiled so as to increase the nephrons' length and hence more surface area for efficient reabsorption to take place.
The Bowman's capsule is a cup-shaped to provide the maximum surface area for filtration.
The tubule is supplied with a network of blood capillaries for maximum reabsorption.
The nephrons are numerous in number for efficient excretion of waste products.
Complications and Disorders of the Excretory System
Common Complications and Disorders of the Excretory System
Mention common complications and disorders of the excretory system
A large number of medical conditions. If these are not addressed right away, they may even be complained about. We need to be well acquainted with the most-recently-mentioned diseases and effective treatment measures. The table below shows some of the problems and symptoms of preventive measures.
The Causes, Symptoms, Effects and Control Measures of Common Complications and Disorders of the Excretory System
Explain the causes, symptoms, effects and control of the excretory system
Disorders of the Excretory System
disease
Cause (s)
Symptoms
Effects
Prevention / treatment

Kidney (renal) failure - failure of the kidney is a function of the destruction of nephrons
Damage to the kidney due to accident or complications during surgery
Low blood volume due to excessive bleeding
Poor intake of fluids
Medication, for example, diuretics ("water pills") may cause a large water loss
Obstruction of renal artery, causing blocking of blood flow to the kidneys
Kidney stones
Chronic diseases that gradually cause kidneys to stop functioning
Dehydration from the loss of body fluid (for example, vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating, fever)
Prostate cancer may block the urethra and prevent the bladder from emptying
Oedema (swelling of the legs, ankles, feet, face or hands due to excess fluids)
High levels of urea in blood leading to vomiting, nausea, weight loss, blood in urine or difficulty in urinating
Loss of appetite
Bone damage, muscle paralysis, abnormal heart rhythm, loss of memory, pain in the future, can lead to death.
Avoid potassium-rich foods like citrus fruits, bananas, instant coffee, peanuts and chocolate
May require a kidney transplant.
Medications eg phosphorus-lowering medications.
dialysis

Kidney stones
Lack of vitamins
Inadequate intake of water
Certain types of drugs
Decrease in urine volume and / or an excess of stone-forming substances in the urine.
Dehydration from reduced fluid intake or strenuous exercise
Obstruction to the flow of urine
Infection in the urinary tract
Extreme pain and difficulty in urination
Pain in the low back and / or side, groin, or abdomen
Blood in the urine of the kidney, ureter or urethra
Nausea and vomiting
Chills and fever
May lead to kidney failure
Toxicity due to urine in the body for a long time
Severe back pain
Surgery and medications are expensive
Taking a balanced diet that is low in protein, nitrogen and sodium
Drinking plenty of water
Avoid beverages that contain caffeine like coffee.
Surgical treatment to remove the stones
May require kidney transplant
Medications (painkillers)

Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
Bacterial infection in the urinary tract
Frequent or intense urge to urinate even though little comes out when you do
Pain during urination
Pain or pressure in the lower abdomen
Cloudy, dark, bloody, or strange-smelling urine
Feeling tired or shaky
Fever or chills (a sign of infection may have reached your kidneys)
Medications are expensive.
Pain and nuisance due to urge to urinate frequently.
Drinking a lot of fluids
Maintaining toilet hygiene
Complete urination
Cleanse genital area before sex
Urinate after sex to flush away any bacteria that may have entered your urethra
Keep genital area dry by wearing cotton underwear and loose-fitting clothes

Liver cirrhosis: a condition in which the liver is shrink, harden, become fibrous and fail to function
Alcohol and viral hepatitis B and C
Attack by bacterial and viruses
Parasites such as liver flukes and schistosoma
Obstruction of the gall bladder
Exposure to chemical poisons such as silica and asbestos
Loss of weight
Poor appetite
Abdominal pain
Blood stained vomit
Severe cirrhosis is fatal
Easy bruising, yellowing of the skin (jaundice), itching, and fatigue.
Oedema, ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity), and liver cancer
Avoiding excess consumption of alcohol
Avoiding fatty foods
Low salt intake
Eating diverse and easy digestible food
Plenty of rest
Medical treatment
Liver transplant in case of severe cirrhosis

Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver
It is a viral disease-virus is transmitted through body fluids such as saliva, blood and semen
There are five main types of hepatitis: A, B, C, D, and E - plus types X and G
nausea
fatigue
Abdominal discomfort
jaundice
Dark brown urine and whitish faeces
May lead to liver failure
If not treated early may lead to death
Hygienic processing of food
Proper disposal of sewage
Treatment of water
Proper handing of blood
Screening blood before transfusion
Using sterilized needles and syringes

Bladder Cancer
Not yet very clear, may car insurance, carcinogens may cause the disease.
Blood in urine.
Frequent urinary tract infections, painful urination and urge to urinate without actual flow.
Weight or appetite loss.
Abdominal or back pain, persistent elevated temperature or anemia.
Expenses on medication.
Pain - reduces the quality of life.
Stop smoking.
Avoid exposure to industrial chemicals.
Eat healthy foods-choose low-fat, low-cholesterol diet that includes plenty of fruits and vegetables.
Avoid dehydration by increasing your fluid intake, particularly water. Water dilutes cancer-causing chemicals.

Excretion in Plants
Types of Excretory Products Eliminated by Plants
Mention types of excretory products eliminated by plants
Excretion occurs in plants and animals. Compared to animals, plants do not have a well-developed excretory system to throw out nitrogenous waste materials. This is because of differences in their physiology. Therefore, plants use different strategies for excretion.
Plants eliminate some waste through diffusion. During the day, the excess oxygen gas produced by photosynthesis is released through the stomata. Carbon dioxide produced by respiration is used during photoynthesis. At night, however, as photosynthesis slows down, it is released as a waste product. Plants also produce oxygen as a product of photosynthesis. The oxygen that is not used for respiration is also excreted through the stomata.
Excess water evaporates, from the stem, fruits, etc., throughout the day. This process is called transpiration.
Many plants store organic waste products in permanent tissues, eg, in heartwood. Plants also store waste within their leaves or barks. These wastes are periodically removed as the leaves and barks fall off.
Some of the waste products are stored in special cells or cellular vacuoles. Various waste products such as tannins, essential oils, gums, resins, etc., are produced during catabolic processes. Tea leaves contain tannin. Tannins are also found in the barks of trees.
The leaves of many plants, like Eucalyptus, lemon, etc., contain essential oils. The body of the flower of roses and jasmine also contain oils. Some plant wastes are stored as a thick, white fluid. You may have seen a white fluid ooze out when you pluck a papaya or a fig or other plants. This white fluid is called latex.
Gums are a group of sticky, water-soluble wastes found in the common gum tree. Resins are another group of wastes found in the stems of conifers (eg, pine, fir).
Alkaloids are a group of toxic waste products. But some of these are useful to us. Quinine and morphine are editorials from alkaloids stored in Cinchona bark and opium poppy flowers respectively. Caffeine found in coffee seeds and nicotine in tobacco leaves is also alkaloids.
Plants also eliminate waste from accumulation of waste. These leaves will eventually die and fall off, they will be waste in the process. This process is calledabscission.
Organic acids, plants, plants, plants, plants and plants. Calcium oxalate crystals in some tubers like yam.
Aquatic plants lose the bridge of metabolic wastes by direct diffusion into the water. Terrestrial plants excrete some waste into the soil around them.
In plants, breakdown of substances is much slower than in animals. Plants do not have specialized excretory organs for the removal of metabolic wastes.
Plants do not need a special reason for the following reasons:
The rate of producing waste in plants is much lower.
The bridge excretory products from plants are removed through the stomata or lenticels. Lenticels are areas in woody stems. Gaseous exchange and removal of waste products.
The major excretory products of plants are carbon dioxide, oxygen and water. These products are recycled. For example, the oxygen released as a product during photosynthesis, is used in respiration by animals and plants. The carbon dioxide was removed for respiration. Water is released into the atmosphere.
Plants produce less poisonous substances compared to the nitrogenous wastes produced by animals.
Plants have large vacuoles. Water droplets or granules.
Plants can also store the waste products in organs that are destined to fall or die off. So they can be excreted via abscission. Other wastes, saps and latexes are pressed out of the plant by hydrostatic pressure inside the plant.
The Importance of Common Excretory Products of Plants
Explain the importance of common excretory products of plants
Have you ever noticed sticky, milky or oily substances being oozed from the bark of trees? These are excretory products and may be resins, gums, latex and other excretory products. These products may be poisonous. However, many people have to use gloves and clothing. The table below shows the functions of some plant waste products.
Product (waste)
Plant source
Use and effects

1. Tannins
Dead tissues of plants such as acacia, conifers, coffee and mangroves.
Treatment / tanning of hides and skins into leather, ie it combines with animal proteins.
It is used in the manufacture of inks and dyes.

2. Alkaloids: Are nitrogenous excretory products in plants and occur in various forms- Common alkaloids include:

(a) Caffeine and theophilinet
-Coffee fruits and tea leaves
-Mild stimulants to increase mental activity and reduce fatigue.

(B) Quinine
- Bark of cinchona tree.
-A drug for the treatment of malaria.-An additive in drinks to act as a stimulant.

(c) Cocaine
- Leaves of coca plant
A very expensive drug for local anesthetics.
A painkiller and also gives great mental and physical strength.
Note: Overdose may lead to hallucinations, anxiety and even death.

(d) Cannabis
-Fruits, flowers and leaves of cannabis sativa (bhang or marijuana)
Manufacture of drugs such as painkillers.
Results in relation, talkative, and greater appreciation of sound and color.
Decreased performance in concentration, intellectual and manual tasks.
Overdose effects are similar to that of cocaine.

(e) Opiates (morphine)
-Poppy poppy
Manufacture of chemicals like morphine and codeine, which are both effective painkillers, muscle relaxant, cough suppressants, and anti-diarrheal.

(f) Nicotine
-Tobacco leaves.
Manufacture of insecticides and narcotic drugs (drugs that stimulate the sensation of pain).
A common cause of respiratory and cardiac diseases, due to tar from its smoke.

(g) Papain
-Epicarp of pawpaw fruits (especially raw).
-Has proteolytic activity hence used as a meat tenderizer.

(h) Colchicine
-Roots of the crocus plant.
Interferes with the process of cell division into mutations; and thus useful in plant breeding.
It is also carcinogenic (cancer-causing).

(i) Pyrethrins
-Flowers of pyrethrum
Making of insecticides

(j) Khat (miraa) mirungi)
-Leaves and twigs of the "khat" plat
-Used as a stimulant.

3. Latex
-Rubber tree
Sapodila
Manufacture of shoe soles, tires, etc.
Manufacture of chewing gum.

4. Gums
Different plants such as Arabic ghath and carob, acacia tree, etc.
Most are are edible and are used to thicken foods and creams.
Gum from sapodilla is used to make chewing gum.
Agar extract (a gum) from algae is used as a culture medium to culture microorganisms.
It is also used to make cough medicine.

5. Anthocyanins
-Petals and leaves of various plants, and are mostly red, blue or purple.
Extracted for making dyes.
Used in making PH indicators.

6. Glucose glycosides
-Foxglove
Manufacture of drugs for the treatment of heart diseases such as digitoxin.

7. Rennin
-Certain tree stems like the casuarina tree
-Manufacture of varnish and gum.

8. Oil
-Flowers or leaves of certain trees.
Manufacture of perfume and ointment for insect bites.

Concept of Regulation
The Concept of Regulation
Explain the concept of regulation
Living organisms are subjected to wide variations in temperature, light, acidity, salinity, wind speeds, availability of water minerals and nutrients. These conditions create a shifting external setting to which organisms must adjust or die.
The central problem for a living thing is to maintain a steady state. Harsh and fluctuating external environment.
Homeostasis is a maintaining process of regulating the body. OR It is the maintenance of an internal environment despite fluctuation in the external environment.
Regulation is the process of controlling the internal body and needs. For the body to function.
Reasons that show importance of regulation
Maintaining favorable condition such as pH and the necessary tissue, tissues and organs.
Enabling organisms to get rid of body and wastes
Enabling organisms to get rid of excess water and salts
Ensuring survival of the organisms
Various Types of Regulation
Mention various types of regulation
The following are the types of regulation:
Temperature regulation (thermoregulation)
Blood sugar regulation
Osmoregulation
Temperature Regulation in Animals
The Concept of Temperature Regulation in Animals
Explain the concept of temperature regulation in animals
HEAT GAIN BY ANIMALS
There are three ways of heat gain by animals:
Metabolism of food stuffs
Shivering
Absorption of solar radiation
EAT LOSS BY ANIMALS
Animals lose heat through:
Convection - This is a flow of heat in the surrounding area
Sweating / Evaporation - This occurs when the animal is loose water vapour from their body surface
Conduction - This is a transfer of heat by physical contact between two bodies
Breathing out
panting
salivation
defecation
urination
Practical Activities to Determine Temperature Regulation in Mammals
Carry out regulatory activities to determine Temperature Regulation in Mammals
Activity 1
Carry out regulatory activities to determine Temperature Regulation in Mammals
The Mechanism of Temperature Regulation in Mammals
Describe the mechanism of temperature regulation in mammals
Ectothermic animals gain heat by:
Metabolism of food stuff
Solar radiation
Contractions of body muscles
Each species of ectothermic animal has its own optimal temperature during which metabolic activities can take place.
The graph below shows the temperature between the external temperature in the Ectothermic animal

When the environment is over heated ectotherms:
Ectothermic animals example fish migrate to places with a more suitable temperature for them
Use of shade - snakes, frogs, lizards take shade to avoid being heated
Pant - turtles and tortoise pant during hot day to loose excess heat
When the environment is over cooled ectotherms:
Burrow - toads burrow during cold conditions to avoid over cooling
Bask - snakes, lizards and chameleons bask in the sun to raise their body temperature
Social behavior - bees cluster together to raise body temperature
Flex their body muscles eg. Flex muscles and coil eggs during cold condition
Use of metabolic heat - bees balances in a cool weather to raise their body temperature.
Endothermic animals gain heat only through metabolism of food substances. The temperature ranges of these animals are as follows:
Mammals 35oC - 40oC
Birds 40oC - 45oC
Each species of endothermic animal has a maximum of 36.7oC homo-sapiens, House fowl 41oC
Temperature regulation in endothermic animals is a physiological process. It is controlled by hypothalamus and contains two thermo receptors hot and cold centers.
When the environment is OVER HEATED:
During hot conditions, the center of hypothalamus is activated by the increase in blood temperature.
Hypothalamus uses nerve impulses and hormones.
Examples of error signals that activate responses.
Sweating - Sweat girth secrete sweat and sweat pores open. Sweat evaporates at the surface of skin with heat.
Vasodilation - Vasodilation - Vasodilation is an increase in the amount of blood in the skin.
Flattening of body hairs: Hair loss on the surface of the body.
Panting - This is a process of opening mouths and hanging out of tongue. Dogs do this process. Panting, heat loss by evaporation.
Closing of stunt vessels, a process done by whales closing stunt vessels directs.
When the environment is OVER COOLED:
Examples of corrective mechanisms, which conserve body heat, are:
Shivering is a reflex shaking of muscles. The process results into generation of heat.
Erection of skin hairs: hair erector muscles.
Vasoconstriction of blood capillaries: Vasoconstriction is a process of narrowing the blood capillaries leading to the skin. This in turn reduces the temperature and decreases the temperature.
Opening of shunt vessels, a process done by whales. Opening of shunt vessels and back to the internal blood circulation. The process reduces heat loss to the surrounding
Increase in metabolic activity. An increase in respiration is increased in thyroxin secretion. During cold conditions, hypothalamus stimulating hormone which stimulates the secretion of thyroxin hormone.
EFFECT OF OVER HEATING
If the core temperature is above 40 ° C, the thermo-regulating mechanism back down. Positive feedback occurs in a state of hypothermia and suffers heat stroke.
EFFECT OF OVER COOLING
If the core temperature falls below 32oC the pulse rate weakens. The patient becomes sluggish. This condition is called hypothermia.
VARIOUS WAYS MAMMALS ARE ADAPTED FOR COLD AND HOT CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Adaptation of human beings in cold environment:
Presence of hair In hair and body care
Possession of heat under epidermis: fat is a bad conductor of heat
Ability of narrowing skin blood capillaries: human beings constrict skin blood capillaries; this reduces the amount of blood passing close to the skin. This makes heat loss by convection.
Ability to shiver: During cold conditions human beings are able to perform involuntary muscles contractions, shivering generate heat
Behavioral Adaptations
Wearing of heavy black clothes. Under the cold conditions, examples of sweaters and coats. Heavy clothes create a layer of body and the clothes. Trapped air is a bad conductor of heat.
Use of heating systems in houses.
Adaptations of human beings in hot climate
Ability of flattening of skin hair. During hot conditions human beings relax hair erector muscles
Ability of the skin at the surface of the skin. Vasodilation предприятель техникации
Possession of sweat glands. Sweat glands secrete sweat on the body's surface through sweat pores. Excess heat is lost when sweat evaporates
Behavioral Adaptation
Use of Shade: During hot conditions, avoiding being heated
Wearing of light-white clothes These reduce heat during hot condition
Use of air conditioners. Air conditioners reduce excess heat in houses
Adaptations of a blue whale in cold environment
Possession of air Circulation in the body of the body and the surface of the body (after endothermic and epidermis)
Possession of bladder (fat layer inside the epidermis). Bladder acts as a thermal insulator. Bladder controls the body surface to the body surface. The process occurs during cold condition
Adaptation of blue whale during warm condition
Possession of circular muscles near the body surface (ie between endothermic and bladder). This allows an animal to get rid of excess body heat.
Adaptation of small mammals eg squirrels and bats during cold condition
Adaptation of small mammals eg squirrels and bats during cold condition.
During cold conditions squirrels and some bats spend the winter in a state of dormant
Hibernation takes place in burrows. The temperature of these animals falls below normal. The chemical is in the body very slow using food stored as fat and glycogen.
Osmoregulation in Mammals
The Concept of Osmoregulation
Explain the concept of osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the maintenance of an internal salt and water concentration in an organism. OR TREATMENT, TREATMENT, TREATMENT, TREATMENT
Osmotic pressure in the body of the animal.
Factors which are in the body
Mention of what is the essence of salt and water in the body
Factors affecting the content of salt and water in the blood include:
Amount of water taken in the body. Large intake of water. It is advised to take two liters. People who are very active may need more than that.
Climatic condition During the time of the hot water, the amount of water is increased. The vice versa problems during cold weather.
Amount of salt salt in the water. Moderate amounts of salt may be taken to a high blood pressure. Excess salts cause the kidney to work harder.
Hormonal Abnormalities: When less ADH is produced and it has been increased in the blood and vice versa.
Blood sugar regulation: The blood sugar regulation in the Langerhans. These hormones are insulin and glucagon.
Insulin hormone: This is the hormone, which is produced from the B-cell. This hormone is secreted when there is a blood sugar in the body. Insulin promotes conversion of blood sugar to glycogen and stored in liver and skeletal muscles. Insulin forces the uptake of glucose by body cells to produce energy.
Glucagon hormone: This is the hormone, which is secreted due to glucose in blood sugar. This Glucagon stimulates liver cells to release glucose into the blood stream. Glucagon stimulates liver cells to release glucose into the blood stream. Also Glucagon stimulates absorption of glucose from the amount.

Blood Sugar Regulation in Mammals
The Mechanisms of Regulating Sugar Level in the Blood
Explain the mechanisms of regulating sugar level in t he blood
Blood sugar regulation is the maintenance of the blood glucose level of the body. The end product of carbohydrate is mainly simple sugars or glucose.
Glucose is absorbed from the alimentary canal. Hence the blood sugar level in the blood.
Blood sugar in mammals is regulated using hormones, which are insulators and Glucagon. These hormones are secreted by a specialized group of pancreatic cells called islets of Langerhans. The alpha cells of the Langerhans secretes Glucagon while the beta cells secretes Insulin.
When the blood sugar level rises in the body insulin is secreted. The insulin accelerates the glycerine.

Glycogen is stored for liver and muscle
Role of Glucagon in Blood Sugar Regulation
Glucagon is secreted in response to blood sugar levels. Glucagon promotes the conversion of Glycagon to glucose and inhibits the oxidation of glucose in the liver.
However, the level of blood glucose is low, glucagon. The glucose is released into the blood stream.

NOTE: Diabetes Mellitus. Failure of a pancreas to secrete insulins
The Causes, Symptoms, and Effects of High and Low Sugar Levels in the Blood
Outline the causes, symptoms, and effects of high blood sugar levels
REPRODUCTION
Concept of Reproduction
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms. Here, the new organisms. It can also be defined as the process of organisms produce new individuals of the same species. It is one of the important features of living things.
The Merits and Demerits of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
Explain the merits and demerits of sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
This is a type of male gamete fuses with a female gamete. Sexual reproduction of the fusion of two gametes. The process of fusion of gametes is called fertilization.
These two gametes differ in form and function. In animals the gametes producing organs are called gonads. These include the ovaries and testes. In flowering plant structures with production of gametes are the ovaries and anthers. The testes and anthers produce the male gametes while ovaries produce the female gametes.
Merits of Sexual Reproduction
It ensure genetic stability
It ensures the perpetuation of life
It brings variation
Leads to the interaction among organisms
Demerits of Sexual Reproduction
Offspring have a great chance of inheriting diseases from the parent
The reproduction takes long time
It needs energy
The sexual reproduction. Few numbers of offspring
It depends on presences of two parents
It leads to a great chance of spreading diseases
It takes a long time until offspring are produced
Asexual Reproduction
This gametes is a production of offspring. There is no fusion of gametes.
Examples of organisms who produce asexually are amoeba and bacteria. Asexual reproduction and only one individual organism. That means no change of genetic material is passed from a parent to an offspring. The offspring are also identical to their parents.
In this kind of reproduction, in the same organisms, body part of the roots, stems or leaves may become reproductive body organs.
Depending on the type of organisms asexual reproduction
Fission
Sporulation / Spore formation
budding
Fragmentation
Vegetative propagation
Binnary Fission (Splitting)
Suckers
Bulbils
Binary Fission (Splitting)
This is an asexual reproduction in which an organism divides into two equal parts, which are identical to each other.
Each part grows to attain the original size of the mother and hence become a separate and independent organism.

Fragmentation
This is a form of a sexual reproduction in which organisms (parent) breaks into two or more parts. Fragments grow and develop into a new organism. Example worms such as Nematodes and flat worms.
Sporulation / Spore formation
Sporulation is asexual reproduction by the use of spores. The spore develops from a single cell, as a result of mitosis, forming a structure known as sporangium. When the sporangium is truly developed, the wall bursts to the germinate into new organisms.
Other organisms, which reproduce by sporulation, are ferns and mosses.

budding
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in the older organism (parent). The bud later separates from the parent and grows to an independent organism. Examples: yeast and hydra

Some flowering plants reproduce the formation called structure called buds. Roots may form such buds, leaves or underground stems and arid buds sprout to form new independent plants.
Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation is a plant for growing and growing in a new plant. The detached plant, root, stem or leaves at some stages grows and develops into an independent plant.
Artificial vegetables propagation: This is vegetative propagation, which occurs through man's manipulation. Man can learn from plants' natural vegetative propagation and art propagation.
Natural vegetative propagation: Vegetative propagation. Such as:
bulb
In this type each bud grows is a form of a shoot.
Bulb is a modified underground shoot with fresh strong leaves

tubers
These are short swollen underground storage organs formed from a stem or a root. New tubers are made of the growing season.
Stem tubers
These are short swollen underground stems, which store food, such as starch. Normally, yam plants form a number of tubers. Such new plant continues to live after the death of the parent.

Root tubers
These are swollen adventitious underground roots. Roots tubers such as sweet potatoes and cassava store

Rhizomes
These are horizontally growing underground stems, bearing leaves, buds and adventitious roots. Examples are lilies, ferns and grass.

Stolons
These are slender stems, creeping horizontally as they grow along the ground surface. Examples: strawberries, black currant and oxalis.

Suckers
These are short horizontal branches. Suckers contain food reserves. Examples: Bananas, sisal and pineapples

Tap root
A taproot is the main root that arises from a radical. Tap roots may become swollen and act as storage organs.

tillers
These are collection of shoots. Grass plants consist of a number of tillers. Each tiller has a number of leaves, which arise from the stem of the leaves.
leaves
Some plants such as cactus propagate vegetative using leaves. When the leaves fall from the plant, they can grow and grow into mature plants.
Merits of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction results into the individual with the same genetic constitution as their parent.
Its offspring matures faster than sexually reproduced organisms
It does not depend on the processes of pollination, seed or fruit dispersal
Demerits of Asexual Reproduction
Asexually reproducing organisms are at a great risk to get distucted when environmental conditions are unfavorable
The parents may pass undesirable measures in asexual reproduction
Competition for resources. A large number of organisms being produced
Meiosis and Reproduction
The Meaning of Meiosis
Give the meaning of meiosis
Reproduction of the transmission of genetic material. The process of reproduction involves meiosis.
Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces sex cells known as gametes.
In this type of cell division has the diploid number of chromosomes. . A condition known as haploid state.
Therefore, meiosis reduces the chromosomes number to half means from 2n to n.
The Significance of Meiosis in Relation to Reproduction
Explain the significance of meiosis in relation to reproduction
Meiosis leads to the formation of reproductive cells (Gametes) such as ova and sperms with half number of chromosomes.
It is a new generation of chromosomes in the gametes.
I am aware of the chromosomes are separated from each other independently (Random assortment)
Meiosis leads to new chromosomes occurring during meiosis I
Meiosis takes the number of processes from prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase. There are two meiotic divisions, the first and the second division. All the above mentioned processes occur in the first meiotic division and the second meiotic division.
First Meiotic Division
The first division of meiosis consists of:
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I




Telophase I
Prophase I
During prophase I the following events occur.
The nucleus disappears and the centrioles if present migrate to the poles
Chromosomes condenses and the spindle is formed
As prophase proceed homologous chromosomes come to lie side by side and intertwined by the process called synapsis
Through synapsis homologous chromosomes is referred to as crossing. The point at which homologous chromosomes exchange genetic materials is known as chiasmata
Early Prophase I
The following events occur during early prophase:
Chromosomes contract, thickening, shortening and become more visible
Nucleus disintegrate and disappear
Mid Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes come together (synapses) forming a bivalent
Late Prophase I
Chromatids cross over by chiasmata which results into the exchange of genetic materials
Metaphase I
Bivalent homologous chromosomes moves to the equator of the spindle
Anaphase I
The two homologous chromosomes part of the company and migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle
The centromeres of the homestead pairs migrate towards the opposite poles where they are attracted.
Telophase
The chromosomes reach their destination
The spindle apparatuses breaks down and disintegrates
Then the nucleus membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes
The cell constricts across the membrane and divides into two
Telephase I make the end of the first meiotic division.
At the end of this prophylaxis the number of chromosomes in each cell is half the chromosomes number cell.
This is the reason why first division of the division
Second meiotic division
Prophase II
Centrioles replicates and a new spindle apparatuses formed

Metaphase II
Chromosomes migrate to the equator f the spindle

Anaphase II
Sister chromatids part of the company and migrate to the opposite poles of the cell
Telophase II
The spindle apparatuses disappears
The nucleus repairs and a new nucleus
The chromatids uncoil and the cell divides into two
Chromosomes regain their structure and the cell enter interphase. A set of chromosomes with haploid set
It should be present in the original parent cell.
Reproduction in Flowering Plants, the structure of the Flower
Some plants use flowers to reproduce. The flowers contain all the parts needed for the reproduction process. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants takes place in the flower. Within a flower, there are usually structures that produce male gametes and female gametes.
The Structure of the Flower
Describe the structure of the flower
A flowering plant is an angiosperm, which is a plant that produces a flower or fruit. The plant is a reproduction. Each part of the flower plays a role in the steps of reproduction. There are male gametes and female gametes. They are both involved with sexual reproduction. Pollen may spread from plant to plant with the same species of plants. Let's take a look at the different parts of the flower.

Structure of a flower
STERILE PARTS
Let's start with the sterile parts of the flower. These sterile parts are not directly involved in the fertilization process. Technically, a flowering plant can reproduce without them; however, they do play important roles in helping with reproduction.
Pedicel: The pedicel is a small stalk-like element in an inflorescence. The Some flowers have no stalks.
Receptacle: The recipe is the place where the floral organs originate and attach.It is the axis (stem) to which the floral organs are attached. In most angiosperms, floral organs are attached in alternating successive whorls. A whorl is an arrangement of sepals, petals, leaves, stipules or branches that radiate from a single point and wrap around the stem.
Sepals: Sepals are the parts of the flower before it. They cup the flower to protect it while it grows. Sepals are mostly green and in most flowers they resemble leaves. A flower bud is protected by sepals. Collectively, all of the sepals form the calyx.Sepals may be hairy, for example in roses, or smooth, for example in hibiscus.Some flowers have sepal-like structures beneath the calyx as epicalyx, for example the hibiscus flower.
Petals: Petals are the delicate and usually brightly colored part of the flower. Flowers have more than one petal, and the flower petals are collectively called the corolla. The color and scent attracts the agents of pollination such as birds and insects. Fused petals form a corolla that can be tubular or funnel-shaped. Some of the petals of leguminous plants are keel-like and they enclose stamens and carpels.Sepals and petals are collectively referred to as the perianth.
Reproductive Parts of the Flower
Identify reproductive parts of the flower
The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals, sepals, one or more carpels (the female reproductive organs), and stamens (the male reproductive organs).
The female reproductive organs
The pistil is the collective term for the carpel (s). A carpel is actually three parts fused into one: stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is at the top of the flower. It is sticky to catch the pollen. Each carpel includes an ovary (ovules are produced), and styles (a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which is the pollen during fertilization).
The ovary is at the base of the flower. From the ovary, extends a tubular structure called pollen called the stigma. The stigma can be used for trap pollen.

Female parts of a flower
The female parts of the flower are underneath:
Ovary: The ovary contains ovules. Ovules are unfertilized female gametes. The position of the recipe from one flower to another. The ovary could be either a superior or inferior in the position of the receptacle. A superior, for example, the ovary of a bean flower. An inferior is in the middle of the receptacle. Examples are the ovaries of a rose and a black jack flower.
Style: The style is a long tube that attaches to the stigma to the ovary. The length of the style varies from one flower to another. This length determines the position of the stigma. In the maize plants, the style and the stigma hand outside the flower.
Stigma: The stigma is a glandular sticky structure at the tip of the carpel. The stigma is the tissue that pollen grains are deposited. The branches of the stigma correspond to the number of carpels. Five branches of the stigma indicate the presence of five carpels.
The male reproductive organs
The small part of the flower consist of one or more stamens. Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists of an anther (which produces pollen) and a filament. The pollen consists of the male reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules.

Male parts of a flower
The following is the detailed description of the female parts of the flower.
Filament: The filament is a slender stalk that supports the anther. The filament may arise from the prescription or the petals. It supports the anther.
Anther: The anther is attached to the apex of the filament. It produces the pollen grains that contain the sperm needed for fertilization.
Types of flowers
Flowers are classified either as complete or incomplete. Complete flowers have sepals, petals stamens and carpels. A flower with both stamens and carpel is said to be bisexual. The hibiscus flower is bisexual.
Incomplete flowers lack some of the floral parts. Flowers that have carpels are referred to as pistillate flowers. Flowers that have stamens are referred to as staminate flowers.
pollination
The Term Pollination
Explain the term pollination
Pollination is the stigma of a flower. Pollen grains from the anthers are carried to the stigma by wind, insects or birds. The ovule (female gamete) is a male reproductive organ that has the same pollen grains as the female reproduction organism. or transfers it to the ovule itself.
Pollination is a very important part of the flowering plant. It is part of the sexual reproduction of plants that grow in new plants.
Types of Pollination
Identify types of pollination
Pollination can either be self or cross pollination:
Self pollination: This is the stigma of the same flower.
Cross pollination: This is the stigma of another flower of the same species.
Disadvantages of self pollination: A potential drawback is that both gametes come from the same parent. If the plant is well adapted to the stable environment, the production of uniform offspring may be advantageous. However, inbreeding will result and if there are disadvantageous elements in the plant, cross-pollinates.
Advantages of cross pollination: Cross-pollination is less reliable and more wasteful than self-pollination, but it is genetically favored because genes are transmitted and variation increases
Factors that favor cross pollination and hinder self pollination
Dioecious plants: Some plants have flowers that are only male - they have onlystamen. Other plants that have only female - they have only carpels.
Monoecious plants: Some flowers on a plant are only male; other flowers on the same plant are only female. So, self pollination is a difference in the timing of their development.
Protandry: Anthers on some plants mature first. Pollination of immature stigma on the same plant is therefore not possible.
Protogyny: The stigmas mature first.
Self-incompatibility: Pollination can occur, if at all, so fertilization takes place.
Agents of Pollination
Outline agents of pollination
These are the stigmas of the anthers. Plants, being immobile, normally require agents for the transport of pollen, which are still wind, insects, birds, mammals (bats, rodents, primates), and water. Insects are the most common animals that will pollinate a carpel. The main agents of pollination are wind, insects and birds.
Wind pollinated flowers
Wind-pollinated flowers are also flower. Pollen is transferred to wind from anthers to stigmas. Wind picks pollen grains from the anthers and transfers them to the stigma.
Structure of a wind-pollinated flower: The anthers and stigma of wind-pollinated flowers are exposed. This makes sit easy for wind pollen that can easily land on the stigma. Flowers of grasses are a representative of wind pollinated flowers.
Adaptations of wind-pollinated flowers
Flowers that depend on wind for pollination. Plants that are pollinated by
Small petals with exposed anthers and stigma. In some plants the petals are often absent or have dull-colored petals that do not attract insects or birds. The petals and sepals are very similar in shape and size.
Large anthers that produce large amounts of pollen grains. Large large large large large Very ch Very bl Very bl Very bl Very bl Very bl Very.
Anthers are loosely attached to the filaments and hang freely to allow the anthers to be easily shaken by the wind.
The pollen grains are small, smooth, dry and light in weight and so it is easily carried in the air by wind. Some pollen grains have bladder-like structures that contain air, thus, increasing their buoyancy.
Feathery stigmas with a large sticky surface so they are more likely to catch pollen from the air.
Large and feathery stigmas, freely hanging on pollen grains can land. The stigma may be branched or hairy to increase the surface area.
Long, hairy style to expose the stigma outside the flower.
No nectar produced because they are attracted to pollinators to the flower.
Not scented as the flowers do not attract insects.
Filaments grow long so stamens hang out of the flower and shake in the wind to disperse pollen.

Wind-pollinated flower
Insect-pollinated flowers (bees, moths, butterflies)
Insect-pollinated flowers are also referred to as entomophilous flower. The term entomophilous is derived from the word entomophily. Features of insect pollinated flowers
Large, brightly-colored petals which attract insects. Flower structure may be adapted for them.
Usually scented; therefore they attract insects to the flower.
Nectarines which contain nectar, for example, mango flowers have nectarines from which you can collect the pollen. The insects are guided to the nectarines by the nectar guides.
Sticky stigma that insects come into contact with and deposit pollen while collecting nectar. The pollen grains picked by insects from other flowers stick onto the stigma.
The stigma and anthers are held firmly in the position within the flower. This is a stethoscope that does not break. The stigma and anthers are located inside the flower pollinators are more likely to pick up pollen.
The anthers are small in size and produce few but large pollen grains.
The pollen grains are fairly large, heavy, sticky and with small spines. This enables them to adhere to bodies of pollinators (insects or birds).

A bee collects pollen on its body as it feeds
Flower pollinated by birds: Birds pollinate flowers when they search for nectar. Birds such as sunbirds have long slender and slightly curved beaks that use to probe into the flower. Pollen grains stick on the beak. The pollen grains are deposited on the other bird.

A bird feeding on nectar
fertilization
The Concept of Fertilization
Explain the concept of fertilization
Fertilization is the union of male and female gametes to form a zygote. Pollen must fertilize an ovule to produce a viable seed. Fertilisation starts when pollen grain lands on the stigma. Only after pollination, when pollen has landed on the stigma of a suitable flower.
After a small pollen grains have a land in the ovule. A pollen tube emerges from the grain. It may grow in response to chemistry.
In a process called fertilization, the two chromosomes combine with the chromosomes. The fertilised ovule goes on to form a new plant. The ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed. Some flowers, such as avocados, only have one ovule in their ovary. Many flowers have lots of seeds in their ovary.
There are 2 types of seeds. Some are endospermic while others are non-endospermic. In endospermic the endosperm, which is outside the plant embryo. Examples of this type of seed are maize and wheat. Non-endospermic seeds have a reserve within the cotyledon (s) of the plant embryo. This starts in broad beans.
Process of Fertilization in Flowering Plants
Explain process of fertilization in flowering plants
During the growth of the tube nucleus, divides by mitosis to produce2 male haploid sperm nuclei. The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and penetrates the embryo sac wall. Then, the tip of the tube bursts open, the tube nucleus disintegrates,
1 male gamete fugs with the egg cell to produce adiploid zygote which undergoes mitosis to form a diploid embryo.
1 male gamete fuses with both the polar nuclei to produce thetriploid primary endosperm nucleus. The triploid nucleus undergoes mitosis to form the endosperm. The endosperm stores food materials that the embryo uses for growth and during germination.

The process of fertilization
Immediately after the fertilization of the ovule.
This is what happens:
The zygote divides many times by mitosis to produce anembryo. It differentiates to become aplumule (young shoot), radicle (young root) and either 1 or 2cotyledons (seed leaves). It is attached to the wall of the embryo sac by a suspensor.
The primary endosperm of nucleus divides many times by mitosis to produceendosperm. In some seeds this endosperm is a food store for later use by the seed. In others it may gradually disappear as the cotyledons develop.
To embryo and the nuclene is in a way that is embryo and endosperm.
The integuments surrounding the embryo have become the tough and protectivetesta (seed coat). The micropyle remains in a seed germination.
The water content of the plant decreases drastically so the seed is prepared for dormancy.
The ovary wall becomes the fruit, the whole ovary is being the fruit. Function The function The function The, eg eg by The. That is why they can be brightly colored and sweet; animals will eat them, and they will be eaten in a defecation, unharmed.
A detailed account of what happens after the fertilization is:
Formation of the testa: The testa is also the seed coat. The two integuments of the embryo sac fuse to form one seed coat. The seed coat thickens and hardens. Sometimes the outer integument forms the hard thick test while the inner integument stays thin and transparent. The thin transparent inner integument is tegmen.The testa protects the seeds against dehydration, physical damage and invasion by microorganisms. The microphyle permits oxygen and water to enter the seed during germination. The hilum is a scar on the test that marks the point of attachment to the fruit.
The formation of the embryo: The egg cell nucleus is a form of zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form the embryo. An embryo is a rudimentary plant containing the plumule, radicle and cotyledons.
Formation of the pericarp: The ovary wall becomes thick and swells up with food substances. The pericarp develops from the ovary wall. The pericarp is often the edible layer in fruits. In mature fruit it may dry up or remain fleshy.
Disintegration of the floral parts: The sepals, petals, stigma and style wither, dry up and fall off. In some cases, some of the floral parts may become flesh and form part of the fruit. The fruit retains scars at the points of attachment to the pedicel and style.
Reproduction in Mammals
The Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Describe the male and female reproductive systems
Female Reproductive System
In humans, like animals, female reproductive system is composed of:
Ovaries: Ovary is situated near each kidney. Ovary produces ova, estrogen and progesterone as female sex hormones.
Fallopian tube: It is also known as egg tube / oviduct, it is a funnel shaped opening. Fertilization normally takes place within this tube.
Uterus: The two fallopian tubes unite to form an expanded tubular organ called uterus womb. It is there that fertilized ova implant and develop into an embryo. NB Placenta is formed as an embryo develops, waste gases and waste products. system.
Vagina: This is the posterior part of the female reproductive duct connecting the uterus with the exterior. It is in this region that sperms are deposited. NB Placenta with an endocrine at the last period of pregnancy, it secretes progesterone like ovaries, which prevent uterine walls.

Male Reproductive System
The male mammal reproductive system is composed of:
Testicles: These are situated in a pouch of skin called scrotum. They produce sperms as endocrine gland it produces secretes male sex hormone called testosterone. Testosterone influences male secondary characteristics during puberty in males.
Sperm duct: It is attached to each testicle, it acts as a temporary store for sperms. Each epididymis leads into a duct called sperm duct or vas di deferens.
Vas deferens: Is the structure, which carries sperms away from the epididymis is a penis
Seminal vesicles and prostate glands: The urinary bladder and the structure called seminal vesicles. Each seminal vesicle has a tube which leads to the sperm duct. Around the junction of urinary bladder and urethra is a gland called prostate gland

Gamete Formation and Fertilization
The Process of Gamete Formation in Mammals
Outline the process of gamete formation in mammals
Gamete formation: Puberty
On average, female attain puberty (Sexual Maturity) when they are 16 years old. In both sexes, attainment of puberty is accompanied by certain behavioral changes.
Those changes are known as secondary sexual characteristics.
NB: Puberty can be defined as a period of adulthood. These changes are influenced by sex hormones that are testosterone in males, progesterone and estrogen in females.
Secondary characteristics in males:
Hairs on their chins and pubic region
Shoulders widen
Voice deepens
Pay more attention to female sex
Secondary characteristics in females:
Enlargement of the mammary gland and hips
Deposition of fat which gives them more round appearance
Development of pubic hair
Menstruation cycle
Pay more attention to males (young men)
NB: At puberty sex organs have become fully functional in males and females.
Gamete formation: During puberty, the stage is in the form of fertile cells which can be pregnant.
It is believed that the female gametes are produced before and after puberty.
The Processes of Ovulation and Menstruation
Explain the processes of ovulation and menstruation
Ovulation: It refers to the release of ova / ovum from ovaries to the uterus. It is expected to occur at the middle of the menstruation cycle.
Menstruation Cycle: The menstrual cycle (28 days)
Menstruation: This is the discharge of mucus, epithelial cells and blood through vagina (3-5 days)
NB: The menstrual cycle and the non-human mammals is called oestrus cycle.
The Process of Fertilization Pregnancy and Child Birth
Explain the process of pregnancy and child birth
The Menstrual Cycle

At the beginning of the cycle, the menstruation can take place 3-5 days. At this period sex hormones are very low and increase after menstruation stops.
After menstruation oestrogen secretion increases, follicle stimulating hormone secreted to encourage ovarian follicle.
Luteinizing hormone is for maturation and ovulation of follicle while oestrogen prepares (thickening) the uterine for implantation when fertilization takes place.
At the 14th (middle) is the last and the future of the uterine wall ready for pregnancy.
NB: If no fertilization occurs, the cycle starts again.
Placenta: This is the portion of uterus, which is invaded by the villion and the thickened portion of the chorion. The chorion like amnion is a thin membrane, finger-like projection.
Umbilical Cord
It connects the developing embryo that placenta to the maternal blood system
It carries two arteries and a vein of blood circulation of an embryo
An embryo uses umbilical cord for gas exchange, receiving nutrients and removal of waste products

Birth
It starts with a sudden fall in the level of oestrogen and progesterone.
Under the influence of hormones a child is given out through vagina
copulation
When a male is sexually stimulated, the spongy penis is filled with blood and becomes erect. The erect penis is inserted into the penis and ejaculation occurs.
Ejaculation refers to the release of sperm into the vagina; it can cause pregnancy when the fertile sperm unites with fertile ova.
Fertilization: It is a form of zygote. The sperms remain alive for up to 48 hours while ova remains alive for up to 36 hours.
Pregnancy: It refers to the situation when a female conceives. That is fertilization takes place to form zygote. Soon after zygote is formed. It takes 3-5 days for the zygote to reach to uterus for implantation.
implantation:
Refers to the process whereby an embryo attaches to the uterine wall
It takes 3 - 5 days to implant fully
After implantation envelope is formed, the outer chorion, inner amnion
Between these membranes of envelop there are fluids called chorionic fluids and amniotic fluids,
Factors Which May Hinder Fertilization
Outline factors which may hinder fertilization
A normal couple who are trying to start a family. However, at least one of these couples do not have to be after a year or more of trying.
There are many reasons why couples can not produce children, some of them are:
Ova are not released in normal monthly cycle
The fallopian tubes may be blocked / twisted
The women may make antibodies that destroy the sperm
The vas deferens may be blocked
A high proportion of the sperm produced are abnormal
Very few sperms are produced in one ejaculation
Ways of overcoming these problems
In - Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Fertility Drugs
Artificial Insemination
The Concept of Artificial Insemination and its Importance
Explain the concept of artificial insemination and its importance
Artificial insemination, also known as AI, is a procedure used to treat the human womb. It is a process, which has been used for human use. In human use, the sperm could originate from the male, male partner, ie not a single woman or woman in same sex relationship.
The most-used method of artificial insemination, is IUI (Intrauterine Insemination), as it has the best success rate. Other types of AI are:
IUTPI (Intrauterine tuboperitoneal insemination
ICI (Intracervical insemination)
ITI (Intratubal insemination)
Artificial insemination is beneficial to couples. For example, a couple may be even if they are in a medical condition. Some other scenarios where artificial insemination could be beneficial are listed below.
A woman may want to raise a child alone - in this case she would like to have a donor to be artificially inseminated.
The female may be infertile due tocervical factor infertility- the cervix is ​​a mucus that helps sperm travel to the womb. With cervical factor infertility, the mucus containing sperm killing substances.
The woman may be suffering. The womb lining is in the woman's reproductive system, eg ovaries or fallopian tubes. One of the possible results of this condition is infertility. Artificial insemination can be successful in mild to moderate cases of this.
The female could have the semen allergy - the sperm makes a contact with me. With IUI, the bridge would be removed before sperm insertion.
The male is unable to produce enough sperm for successful fertilization.
The man is impotent (erectile dysfunction) - and would therefore be able to perform sexual intercourse.
The male could be infertile for the risk of infertility egradiotherapy. Before the treatment was given to the chance to freeze some of his sperm.
The couple could be in the same sex relationship - two women who would like to raise a child.
Reason for infertility can not be determined - IUI can not be recommended for the infertility.
Multiple Pregnancies
The Meaning of Multiple Pregnancies
Give the meaning of multiple pregnancies
Multiple pregnancy refers to a more than one reproductive tract of the female. On this occasion it is possible for them to be fed more than one, so that they can enter the uterus where they are implanted and developed.
The Causes of Multiple Pregnancies
Explain the causes of multiple pregnancies
Multiple pregnancies may occur as a result of IVF program.
Causes of Multiple Pregnancy Include:
More than one ovum released into the reproductive track
One fertilized ovum splitting up into more than one embryo resulting to twins
Difference between Identical Twins and Fraternal Twins
Differentiate between identical twins and fraternal twins
Identical Twins: These are fully identical and are born from a single fertilized ovum. They have the same sex and appearance.
Fraternal Twins: Resulting when more than one ovum (ova) are released at a time and are fertilized. They may have the same sex but not identical at all.
Disorders of Reproductive System
Types of Disorders of the Human Reproductive System
Mention types of disorders of human reproductive system
Reproductive system is dealing with the birth of a child. We have a reproductive system and a female reproductive system. The main function of the reproductive system is to fuse the gamete causing fertilization. Conserving the baby in a mother's womb till the day of bearing a child. Also is the one providing birth / bearing of a child.
There are many disorders that affect the reproductive system. These problems may be found in both male and female reproductive systems. Disorders affecting the male reproductive system are Impotence, Premature Ejaculation, Inflammation and Autoimmunity. Female disorders of the reproductive system are Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PID), Congenital Malformation and Functional Disorder.
The Causes and Effects of the Reproductive System Disorders
Explain the causes and effects of the reproductive system disorders
Male reproductive system disorders
impotence
This is the ineffectiveness of the penis. A male could not erect the penis even though he will touch the sex organs.
Causes of Impotence
Impotence is usually psychological disturbance. It may occur during the life of a male
Strong alcohol consumption and use of drugs
Diseases also may cause impotence
Effects of Impotence
Impotence causes failure in the social act, therefore, can not have children
May cause psychological disturbances to the person
If an impotent person in married, impotence may lead to the break of that marriage
It may lead to the contamination of diseases such as HIV / AIDS, gonorrhea
Premature Ejaculation
Premature ejaculation is the situation where a man reaches orgasm before the penis into the female track. Before inserting penis into the female track.
Causes of premature ejaculation
Fear, anxiety and sometimes is the first time to have sexual intercourse
Psychological factors may also lead to a problem
Effects of premature ejaculation
The person (male) fails to satisfy a woman
I am looking for a wedding break
May cause psychological disturbances in the man's mind
Autoimmunity
This is a situation in which we are fighting against the sperms. It may lead to have a small number of sperms in the sperm store area.
Causes of Autoimmunity: Antibodies react to one's own sperm. It is not exactly known what causes autoimmunity.
Effects of Autoimmunity
It causes infertility to a person
May cause psychological effects to the person who is suffering from this problem
No more production of children
Inflammation
It is the condition in which the urethra is blocked. It allows no movement of sperm out of the penis and also the urine.
Causes of inflammation
May be caused by swelling of the prostate gland
Also inflammation may cause the problem
Effects of inflammation
Inflammation may lead to sterility (infertility)
May cause psychological problems to the person
May cause severe pain during sexual intercourse as one / man wants to ejaculate but sperms fail to pass through urethra
DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
DAMAGE OF THE OVIDUCTS (INFLAMMATION)
Oviduct of the female may be blocked and causes the female organs to fertilization of an ovum
Causes of damages to the Oviduct (inflammation): The infections may cause scarring, thus leading to partial or complete blockage of the oviduct.
Effects of damage to the Ovid (Inflammation): It causes infertility to the female. A female may not have the ability to carry / conceive a fallopian tube.
PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISORDER (PID)
This is the full infection caused by bacteria.This condition causes damage to the oviducts.
Effects of PID: The condition may lead to infertility. A woman may fail to bear a child
CONGENITAL MALFORMATION
Some women are born with blocked oviduct or with no uterus (it usually happens in very few cases)
Causes of malformation: This is a woman born with disorder
FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS
This is a condition in which a woman can do sexual acts
Causes of functional disorders
The cause may be psychological
Also may be biological one
Effects of functional disorders
May cause someone to stay away from conducting sexual intercourse
May lead to end in marriage
Possible Remedies of Reproductive System Disorder
Suggest possible remedies of reproductive system disorder
Treatment of Impotence
If the causes of impotence are psychological, counseling may help to cure it
If it is a cause for medical check up
Treatment of premature ejaculation
Counseling is the most effective way to treat the problem
Medical treatment may be applied to stop the problem
Treatment of Autoimmunity
This disorder is more difficult to treat
Treatment of inflammation
One / man should have to seek medical advice or intervention
Treatment of damage to the Oviduct (Inflammation)
Surgery is the most effective treatment of this problem.
Treatment of PID
If a woman feels she has a PID she should have to go to the hospital for the right treatment
Abstaining from many sexual partners so as to overcome more infections / problem
Treatmentof functional disorders
Counseling is the most effective way to help the patient regain their confidence
Patients may go to hospital for further checks and treatment
Complication of the Reproductive System
Types of Complications of the Reproductive Systems
Mention types of complications of the reproductive systems
Most women will be born in the future. Breeders, problems, births and births, breech birth.
Miscarriage: This is the loss of developing embryo before six months are over. Medically, miscarriage is considered as the natural abortion. It may result from fetus not fully developed.
Ectopic Pregnancy: Occasionally the fertilized ovum. For example it can be implanted in the fallopian tube instead of uterus. This situation is known as ectopic pregnancy.Only 1 out of 50,000 ectopic pregnancies may be delivered safely.
Abortion: Refers to the premature termination of pregnancy. Abortion may occur naturally (miscarriage) or be induced.Induced Abortionis the abortion that is deliberately taken out for medical reasons.Spontaneous Abortiois the kind of abortion that occur without people or medical intervention. That is not induced in any way. It is also referred to as miscarriage.
Breech Birth: This is a situation where the baby is born. In such cases, the duration of delivery is too much, the delivery of the baby, and the death of the baby. such as forceps (surgical tongs) or Caesarian (C) section
Caesarian Delivery: This is an abdominal and uterine wall. Caesarian delivery can be done if you are pregnant.
Other complications that occasionally arise during childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described as follows:
Non-progression of labor (long-term contractions), is also treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic oxytocin preparations. If this is ineffective Caesarian section may be necessary.
Fetal distress is the development of distress by the child. These may include rising or decreasing heartbeat (monitored on cardiotocography). Shedding of meconium in the amniotic fluid and other signs.
Non-progression of expulsion; can can this this Ca Ca Ca this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this.
Unanticipated heavy bleedingduring or after childbirth is potentially lethal for high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death.
Causes of Complications of the Reproductive System
Outline causes of complications of the reproductive system
Other complications that occasionally arise during childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described as follows:
Non-progression of labor (long-term contractions), is also treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic oxytocin preparations. If this is ineffective Caesarian section may be necessary.
Fetal distress is the development of distress by the child. These may include rising or decreasing heartbeat (monitored on cardiotocography). Shedding of meconium in the amniotic fluid and other signs.
Non-progression of expulsion; can can this this Ca Ca Ca this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this this.
Unanticipated heavy bleedingduring or after childbirth is potentially lethal for high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death.
Ways to Minimize the Occupation of Complications and Disorders of the Reproductive System
Suggestions to minimize the occurrence of reproductive system
The following are the ways of minimizing the occurrence of reproductive system.
Stop / minimizing the amount of alcohol that can take away from the impotence and other infections
Practice different duties / exercises and exercises to reduce problems in the reproductive system
Medical check up for those who want to get married to know their health or HIV / AIDS in order to minimize the death or miscarriage during pregnancy
Getting early treatment of any infections like gonorrhea, syphilis, bilharziasis, which may cause damage to the fallopian tubes and urethra in male and female.
Sexuality and Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior
The Concept of Sexuality
Explain the concept of sexuality
Sexuality includes fondness or readiness for a sexual activity.
Sexuality is the function of
How do you feel about yourself as a person
How you feel is a man or woman
How to get along with the same or opposite sex
It also includes genital and reproductive processes such as intercourse and child bearing
Social Cultural Factors Influencing Sexual Behavior in Different Age Groups of People
Mention social media factors influencing sexual behavior in different age groups of people
Sexual Behavior in Children
Factors influence sexual behavior in Children:
Start at infantry
Also sexuality is shown at the beginning of age (play age)
Children also to learn from their fellow children on different sexual matters
Education - in school and community
Initiation rites
Religious beliefs
Mass Media
Economic status - both poor and rich
Sexual Behavior in Adolescents
Factors influence sexual behavior in adolescents:
Early marriage
Social pressure (tradition of being independent)
Drug addiction - it can stimulate or depress the sexual practice
Peer pressure
Education - school and community
Moral decay
Marriage breakdown and problems
Poverty
Mass Media
Lack of proper guidance and counseling
Difference Between Responsible and Irresponsible Sexual Behavior and Their Impact on Oneself Family and Community
Differentiate in relation to irresponsible sexual behavior and their impact on oneself family and community
Responsible sexual behaviours are the behaviors that are acceptable in the societies of elicit or trigger sexual activity like marriage.
Irresponsible sexual behaviors and prostitution to trigger the sexual behaviors and triggers of sexual addiction.
Effects of irresponsible Sexual Behavior
To an individual:
Becoming pregnant at a tender age, thus losing the opportunity of being married or continuing with studies
Being in danger of contracting fatal venereal disease such as syphilis, HIV / AIDS, gonorrhea etc.
It may lead to death, when it is an abort an unwanted pregnancy
Getting a caring for a family at an early age
It can degrade the personality of a person. For example prostitutes or rapists have a place to put their faces in some societies
To family
Breakage of marriage
Lead to conflict in the family or marriage
Loss of a particular relative if he / she is a disease like HIV / AIDS
Ways of Eradicating Irresponsible Sexual Behavior / Practices in the Family and Community
Suggest ways of eradicating irresponsible sexual behaviours / practices in the family and community
Appropriate Life Skills Required to Cope with Adolescent Sexuality and Sexual Behavior
Mention appropriate life skills required to cope with adolescent sexuality and sexual behavior
Family Planning and Contraception
The Concept of Family Planning and Contraception
Explain the concept of family planning and contraception
Family planning is a decision made by a person who is willing to have fun.
Contraception refers to the prevention of male gamete with the female gamete. Birth control is prevented after fertilization.
Artificial family planning methods. Natural family planning menthods.
Artificial Family Planning Methodsincludes sterilization, oral contraceptives, intra-uterine devices, Norplant, diaphragm and condoms
Natural Family Planning Methodsincludes rhythm, the basal body temperature and withdrawal (coitus interrupt)
Social Practices which Enhance Family Planning
State social practices which enhance family planning
Social cultural practices, which enhance family planning, which are:
abstinence
This refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse.
Advantage of Abstinence
It is the most effective method of speech conception
The approximated rate of failure of this method is zero percent
Disadvantages of Abstinence
It is said to be unrealistic
Rhythm Method (Calendar Method)
This is modified from abstinence. N intercourse is done during the fertile period. Days These days These identified These identified These These These These These These These. A woman is also a group of people who have a sexual intercourse and must be avoided. Total abstinence is about 7 days in a month.
Advantages of the Rhythm Method
The method is said to be natural and widely acceptable
It has no cost
It is said to be 77-87% effective
Disadvantages of Rhythm Method
The approximate failure rate is 20%
It requires good knowledge and good record keeping
It also requires a period of abstinence
Irregularity of the menstrual period (cycle)
Temperature Method
This method is based on the men's body's temperature due to her menstrual cycle. The temperature is said to drop during the menstrual period. A rise in temperature is not possible at the time of conception.
Advantages of the Temperature Method
The method is said to be 76-80% effective
It costs nothing
It does not require fitting and regular checkups
Disadvantages of the Temperature Method
The approximate failure is said to be 20-24%
Sperms released to a female tract a few days before ovulation may survive until ovulation
Irregularity of the ovulation may cause fluctuation of temperature
Billing Method (Ovulation Method)
This method is based on the menstrual cycle. The appearance of the clear thin mucus in the female tract secretions at ovulation is noted and the sexual intercourse is avoided during these times.
Advantages of Billing Method
It is said to be 76-80% effective
It costs nothing (it is cheap)
It does not require fitting and regular check ups
Disadvantages of Billing Method
Regularity of ovulation may cause fluctuation of temperature
Coitus Interruption (withdrawal)
Coitus interruption or withdrawal is a natural method of birth control. This method is one of the oldest methods of birth control. Coitus interruption requires unusual degree of will power.
Advantages of Withdrawal
The method is costless
It is reliable for 76-80% when practiced
Disadvantages of Withdrawal
The method requires some degree of will power
It has a high failure rate in the case of ejaculation
Sperms may leak from the penis before is withdrawal even without ejaculation
Artificial Methods of birth control
Barrier Methods
These methods prevent sperms from entering the female tract. These methods include:
Condom: This is a thin rubber sheath, which prevents sperms from entering the female tract. Male relationship with sperm and ovum.
Advantages of Condoms
Condoms are said to be 85% to 93% reliable when used properly (handled with care)
They may help prevent sexually transmitted diseases
They are cheap and easily obtained
Disadvantages of Condoms
Condoms can tear and leak. In such cases they become useless
A condom may slip off the penis after climax
Condoms may disrupt the act of love making (reduce sensation)
Female Condoms
Female condoms are equivalent to male condoms in that:
It is a thin rubber tube with the close end which fits inside the female tract
Female condoms are relatively new. They give a woman some control over the male condoms
Diaphragm
This is another barrier method of preventing sperm in the female tract.A diaphragm is a flexible uterus. It is applied with contraceptive jelly (cream) or spermicidal chemicals, which kill sperms. A doctor must prescribe this method.
Advantages of Diaphragm
The method is said to be cheap
It can be inserted a few hours before sexual act
Disadvantages of Diaphragm
The diaphragm must be fit
It disrupts spontaneity
It occasionally caused pain in the abdomen
It needs check up after every six (6) months
It should be left in place six hours after intercourse
Spermicidal
These are chemicals, which kills sperms. Spermicidal foam, or spermicidal jelly is inserted in the tract just before the sexual intercourse. These kill sperm and block cervix.
Advantages of Spermicidal
It is cheap
It is effective for about an hour
Disadvantages of Spermicidal
It is messy
It has a high failure rate. If used on its own
The pill
This is one of the most widely used contraceptive methods. The pill is an oral contraceptive by synthetic oestrogen and progesterone taken by the gonadotropins from the pituitary. These synthetic hormones prevent the ovulation process, thus hindering fertilization.
Advantages of the pill
The pill is said to be very effective and it is about 98% successful
A woman has control over the method
It has no interference with the sexual intercourse
Disadvantages of the pill
It is not suitable for all women. There may be increased blood clotting in some women
It is not recommended for older women or women who smoke
Short term side effects of the pill include nausea, weight gain, tissue swelling, fluid retention and minor headaches
The Importance of Male Involvement in Family Planning
Outline the importance of male involvement in family planning
People go for family planning or control for a number of reasons. Among these are:
To ensure that they are happy, give enough time for a mother's full recovery after giving birth
Ability to cater for needs of many children
Couples decide to practice child spacing so that they can cater for their needs
Helps to prevent pregnancy in the future, unwanted pregnancies
Importance of Family Planning and Contraception
Some family planning methods to prevent HIV and sexually transmitted infections
Family planning reduces the need for unsafe abortion
Family planning reinforces people to determine the number and spacing of their children
Family planning helps to build the health of a mother
Family planning enables the family to be able to do the family
Maternal and Child Care
The Concept of Maternal and Child Care
Explain the concept of maternal and child care
A pregnant mother needs to pay for the child. Basically there are two types of care. These are pre-natal and post-natal care. The pre-natal care is called natal care. But a pregnant mother also needs to look after the child; this post-natal care.
Maternal care during pregnancy (Pre-natal care)
Pre-natal care means before birth; therefore pre-natal care is a pregnant woman before delivery.
Things to be done by a pregnant mother
Visit ante-natal clinic for counseling
Maintain general body cleanliness all the time
Have enough rest
Wear losing-fitting dresses and low heeled shoes for comfort
Eat well balanced diet. All types of food
Things to be avoided by a pregnant mother
Doing tiresome and manual work. Example lifting heavy loads
Taking any medicine not prescribed by the doctor
Taking drugs such as alcohol, cigarettes which could be detrimental to the unborn baby
Tight clothes and high heeled shoes
Avoid situations leading to chances of contracting venereal diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS which might affect the baby
Avoid stressful situation
Care during natal period
Natal period is pregnant. She is womb for about nine months. A number of things to be considered during the natal period:
An expectant mother needs to be in the labor of a trained nurse if possible
If any complications arises, it is not possible for an adult to be a trained birth attendant
Most births are perfectly normal. When problems arise, modern delivery facilities and techniques such as Caesarean section and vacuum extraction are used. Care should be taken to damage the body or the mother
In case a newborn baby is a good example of growth and development
Post-natal services to the mother and the child
These are the care and the newborn child after birth. After birth a mother has a big role in breast-feeding the child.
Also, do you need to take a look at your child's health and safety?
Proper nutrition will help restore tissue during the natal period. This is also a newborn baby with milk. The health of both the mother and the child should be seriously taken care of.
Child health care
Mothers should breast-feed the child whenever possible:
It contains antibodies that are much needed to the child
In case the mother has health problems
Mother's milk also contains baby proteins
Breast milk is easily digested than other milk. Bottled milk. Therefore, the children rarely suffer from constipation
Mother's milk, which is a nervous system of the child
Regular attendance of post-natal clinic for the child is very important. The child should also be immunized against different infections and diseases such as polio, measles and other diseases
The mother should follow the advice of the student
Social-Cultural Factors which Affect Maternal and Child Care in the Family and Community
Mention social-cultural factors which affect the family and community
These include the following:
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): This is the practice of circumcising women. It is said to have effects during childbirth. It causes pain, bleeding, and may lead to infection.
Local Belief: These are certain local beliefs and taboos such as banning women to eat their baby.
Working healthy work as hard as hard work miscarriage or pain.
Alcohol Consumption during pregnancy: In the case of normal behavior. But he was pregnant and he was pregnant.
Appropriate Ways of Providing Maternity and Child Care for People Living with HIV / AIDS (PLWHA
Learn how to care for people living with HIV / AIDS (PLWHA)
These include the following:
To ensure frequent medical check up for both maternal and child
To ensure they get well balanced diet
Avoid sharing sharp objects like razor blades
Counseling in order to help them deal with their feelings of loss and grief
To avoid discrimination for people living with HIV / AIDS
Ensure the use of polite language when providing care to them
Wearing of gloves when cleaning their bodies and clothes